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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



BOOKS BY 
FELIX ARNOLD, A.B., PD. D., PH.D. 



Principal Public School, New York City; fellow of the American 
Association for the Advancement of Science: and the New York 
Academy of Sciences; and Member of the American Anthro- 
pological Association, American Humane Association, 
American Psychological Association, American Sociological 
Society, "Royal Society of Arts, Etc, 



Attention and Interest, 

Cloth, 12mo., viii ~r 272 pages 
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IN PREPARATION 

Special Methods of Instruction, 

Volume two, Oral and Motor 

Volume one deals with development, chiefly visual. Volume 
two will take up oral and written work, manual exercises, 
motor activities, games, etc. Bach volume is complete in itself 
and will he sold separately. 

Measurements of Teaching Efficiency, 

This volume will analyse the aspects which make for efficiency. 
and will submil a standard of measurement for different 
aspects of instruction, discipline, personality, etc. 



S. MANDEL, PUBLISHER 

ST. NICHOLAS PLACE NEW YORK CITY 



SPECIAL METHODS 
OF INSTRUCTION 



BY FELIX ARNOLD, Ph. D. 



VOLUME ONE 
DEVELOPMENT 
CHIEFLY VISUAL 



Nfui f nrk 

S. MANDEL 
1913 



As 



Copyright, 1913 
By Felix Arnold 

Published November, 1913 



©CI.A36124S 



?; 



PREFACE 

Special Methods deal with practical classroom work. Logic- 
ally such methods are expressed in the form of sentences in the 
imperative mood, each sentence corresponding to a definite situa- 
tion. General method is somewhat the same saA^e that the sen- 
tences correspond only in a general way to a number of definite 
situations. Neither general nor special methods are directly 
concerned with aims of education, underlying principles of instruc- 
tion, historical development, comparative values, and the like. 
Such aspects belong to the field of the theory of education. The 
present volume deals with special methods of instruction. 

The generous latitude which is allowed, and the universal 
encouragement of initiative and original work which is given by 
the Department of Education of New York City have enabled me 
to try out methods in all the elementary school grades. My thanks 
are due to the teachers of five schools who have given aid and 
suggestions. Throughout the book traces are due to long associa- 
tion with such leaders in practical education as Principals S. 
Badanes, B. Cronson, W. E. Grady, W. F. Kurtz, L. Marks, R. F. 
McCormack, J. J. 'Regan, J. J. O'Reilly, J. E. Wade, and Super- 
intendents A. W. Edson, E. D. Farrell, H. W. Jameson, W. H. 
Maxwell, and B. Veit. Suggestions on formal grammar have been 
given by Principal J. J. O'Reilly, one of the most practical teach- 
ers in the City. Dr. S. Badanes has read the proofs and has made 
corrections in the chapters on arithmetic and on language work. 
The literature in English and German of which I have made use 
will be treated critically in a separate pamphlet. 

Felix Arnold 
New York City 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I — Visual Appeal — General Directions 1 

II — Arithmetic — Visual 5 

III — Arithmetic — Visual (Concluded) 36 

IV — Reading and Memory — Visual 67 

V — Phonics — Visual 91 

VI — Spelling and Dictation — Visual 115 

VII — Composition — Visual 137 

VIII — Composition — Visual (Concluded) 178 

IX — Language Forms and Grammar — Visual 203 

X — Grammar — Visual (Concluded) 232 

XI — Geography — Visual 258 

XII — History and Civics — Visual 305 

XIII — The Study op Nature— Visual 352 

XIV — The Study of Nature — Visual (Concluded) 382 



CHAPTER I 
VISUAL APPEAL — GENERAL DIRECTIONS 

Properly to present visually the subject matter of any lessons 
use the following: 

Blackboard 

Chart 

Map 

Model 

Specimen or Object 

Perception Card 

Text-book 

And if available, 

Steroscope 
Lantern 
Moving Picture. 

I. The Blackboard 

1. The blackboard. Have the board, or the part to be cleaned 
washed down every day. First rub the board down dry, and remove 
all chalk dust from the trough at the bottom. Then go over the 
surface with a wet or damp rag. Whenever it seems necessary and 
at least once a week have the board washed down with ink or ink 
and water. Use the dregs from three or four inkwells. After the 
board has been so washed down, have any ink stains or drippings 
wiped off with a damp rag. 

Have the board rubbers or rags cleaned every day. Have them 
cleaned in the school yard and not in the room, at the windows, on 
the stairs or against the school walls. Have all the chalk cleared off 
every afternoon. In the morning have the needed chalk arranged 
in the trough ready for use. 

2. Blackboard work. Use about a third of the board for dia- 
gram, drawing, map, calendar, outline, graph, table, list of words, 
phonograms, dates, etc., which are to be used during the day or 
during several days. Make your diagram, drawing, etc., either after 
school sessions or before school sessions. Use white chalk for letters, 
words or figures. Use yellow, orange, or red crayon for under- 
scoring, boxing, etc. 

1 



2 SPECIAL METHODS 

Use about one third of the board for type problems, type sen- 
tences, spelling list, outline in history or geography, etc., which are 
needed for the day's work. Write such problems, sentences, list, 
etc., before the children are in the room. Use white chalk for letter, 
words or figures, and yellow, orange or red crayon for underscoring. 

Keep the middle third of the board free for the work of the 
day. If immediate use calls for it fill this third with the work to be 
taken up, as problems in arithmetic, sentences in grammar, model 
for dictation or composition, etc. The specific board work in the 
different subjects will be taken up under different headings, as, 
arithmetic, language, etc. 

II. The Chart 

1. The chart. Make your chart out of white cardboard or out 
of oak-tag. For more permanent use buy white window shades. So 
that cardboard charts may last and that they may be properly hung, 
punch eyelets a few inches from the side and about three quarters 
of an inch from the top of the chart. To prevent the chart from 
turning or bending when hung, reinforce the back with a flat stick 
or slat of wood. Place the slat at the top and back of the cardboard 
and tack on. 

If a shade is used spread glue over the shade three or four 
inches from the top, roll it tightly round the roller and tack it on 
with iy 2 or 2 oz. tacks. Mount the shade on a piece of wood about 
three inches wide and an inch thick. 

Colored ink can easily be made. Use any colored powder and 
mix it with water and mucilage. Add to this one or two drops of 
ox-gall for a gill of the mixture. Spread the ink with a brush or 
use a stub pen as with ordinary ink. Use black ink for figures, 
letters or words. 

2. Chart work. Chart work is very useful for visual appeals 
which are to be made again and again during the term. Make 
charts for tables, graphs, lists of phonograms, lists of dates, outlines 
in history or geography, number forms, cross section of maps, letter 
forms, etc. More specific material will be found under the different 
chapter headings. 



VISUAL APPEAL 



III. The Map 



1. Flat maps. Maps are usually supplied by the school authori- 
ties. For purposes of instruction better maps can be made by the 
class teacher. Make the map on the blackboard, or for more 
permanent use, on a shade or cardboard. 

In drawing a map first sketch the outline lightly with white 
crayon or, for shade work, with charcoal. Fill in what is to be the 
specific object of the lesson, as, rivers, mountains, products, special 
divisions, etc. If necessary draw a water line. Now fill in the 
outline with a firm hand. Use white chalk for printed matter, for 
rivers, etc., blue crayon for water line, brown or purple for high- 
lands, and green for lowlands. Railroads and steamship routes may 
be indicated with firm red lines. Ocean currents may be marked 
with firm blue lines. The colors may be used solidly or may be 
indicated by line work. Solid coloring should be very light. For 
the different kinds of maps read the chapter on geography. 

2. Relief maps. Very durable and effective relief maps are 
made out of papier mache. Have a board made from 3 to 5 feet long 
and from 2 to 3 feet wide. To prevent warping or curving have 
the ends of the board paneled and the back braced with cross pieces. 
Outline in pencil the map to be made and coat with glue the part 
of the board to be covered with papier mache. 

To make the needed papier mache tear newspapers into small 
pieces and let them soak in water over night. Squeeze the paper 
into a massy pulp and let a pupil pound it with a stone till the pulp 
is of the consistency of clay or putty. Mix with the pulp some white 
photo or flour paste. The papier mache' will then be ready for use. 

Squeeze out any water that may be in the pulp. Spread it 
evenly over the board, closely following the outline. Roughly put 
in mache' for the highlands. Use the fingers to even out the high- 
lands, valleys, lowlands, river beds, etc., so that the map assumes a 
more finished form. 

Let the map become hard. Paint the map white and the. back- 
ground some other color, as blue or green. When the paint is hard 
shellac the entire surface. The map will then be water proof and 
can be washed. Different colors can be used according to the kind 
of map made. All colors should be fairly light. 



4 SPECIAL METHODS 

IV. Perception Cards 

Perception cards are made out of oak-tag or card board. Backs 
of pads may be used. Cut up the cardboard into cards about 9 or 
10 inches long and about 5 or 6 inches wide. For tables, phono- 
grams, etc., place the basic element on the large card, and the varia- 
ble elements on movable cards about 3 inches wide. Use twine to 
fasten the movable cards. 

Other materials for visual appeal, as, models, text-books, etc., 
need no special description. Their use will be indicated under the 
different subject headings. 

V. General Suggestions 

Whatever is basically visual should be presented visually, and 
not verbally or orally. For example, the map itself should be drawn 
for the pupils. No verbal description should take its place. Not 
the rule for an example, but a type example should be worked out. 
Not a definition of a noun but a series of nouns should be illustrated 
and listed. 

Whatever visual work is to be presented should be carefully 
prepared before the pupils enter the room. With the blackboard 
filled with work, charts ready and perception cards arranged and 
near at hand, the teacher can proceed with an air of certainty and 
assurance which both impels attention and secures good discipline. 
With definite work before him the pupil more readily settles down 
to class work and more quickly loses the harum-scarum images and 
notions of the home and the street. 

Whatever material is used should be neat and clean. In fact 
it should be the best that the teacher can present. No slipshod work 
should be tolerated. Such signs of carelessness as dirty, torn maps 
or charts, grey blackboards, miserable, scrawlly writing, or indis- 
tinct figures should not be allowed. No pupil who is unable to write 
large and distinctly should be permitted to write instead of the 
teacher. Such excuses as, 'I can't draw,' 'That's the way I 
always write,' and the like, should be translated into their real 
meaning, 'I am not fit to teach.' It requires but little practice for 
any teacher to attain skill in blackboard work, and in the construc- 
tion of models, charts, etc. In fact such work, as in the case of 
kindergarten teachers, should be required of all normal pupils and 
of all pupil-teachers. 



CHAPTER II 
ARITHMETIC — VISUAL 

I. The Number Four 

1. Counting. Call on four pupils, all boys or all girls. Slowly 
explain and question as follows : 
I want four boys to stand. 

No, not so many. Four — one, two, tbree four. Jobn, 
Henry, James, William. Stand up and step before 
the class. 
This is John. (Mark on the board). This is Henry. (An- 
other mark). This is James. This is William. One, 
two, three, four. 




Look at the boys. One, two, three, four. Look at the 
marks on the board. One, two, three, four. 

How many marks are there? Count them with me as I 
point. 

Call on a number of pupils one at a time to count the boys 
and the marks as you point. Point to John, and pass to William. 
Point to William and pass to John. Begin indiscriminately with 
the other pupils, Henry or James. Group the pupils and direct as. 
follows: 

John and Henry, move over. 

Now we have, One, two, One. two. 

Altogether, One, two — three, four. 

James, step closer to Henry. 

Now we have. One, two, three — one. 

Look at the lines on the board as I draw them. 

Count them. 



Ill I 



Make use of other objects in the room, as books, pencils, papers, 
panels in the door, window panes, walls of the room, corners of the 

5 



6 SPECIAL METHODS 

desk, etc. Have the pupils recognize and pick out four of a kind. 
Question them as follows : 

How many pencils have I in niy hand ? Count them. 

Harry, get me four pieces of paper. Hold them up. 

Count them — John. William. Joseph. Frederick. 

I want some others to count. No, not the class. Hold up 
hands. 

Now point out four panes of glass. 

Come up and touch four desks. 

Show me four panels in the door. Count them. 

Make four white marks on the board. 

Get four pencils. Hold them up. 



Call on individual pupils to point out, count, hold up, etc. Give 
the same question or task to several pupils. Pass rapidly round 
the class and throw questions repeatedly at parts of the class which 
seem to pay less attention than needed. 

In the above presentation, actual objects in the classroom are 
used. Follow up the work by representative objects and black- 
board work. Draw simple figures on the board, using four strokes 
for each figure. Pause after each stroke and count as you make 
the stroke. Use figures similar to the following : 

Line ivorlc. 




IT 




Animals. 




ARITHMETIC 



Leaves, objects, etc. 






2. Measuring. Let pupils pace a short distance. Direct them 
as follows: 

Who can walk from here to the door? 
Take four steps — One, two, three, four. 
Who else can do this? Try it, John. William, count. 

Draw a line on the board, four feet long. Use colored crayon. 
Measure the line with a foot rule. Direct as follows: 



fr 



# 



4 



* 



See how many times I mark off. Count. 

Who can mark off? Try it. John. Henry. Rose. 

Who can count as I point? William, Mary. 

Who can draw a line as big as this one? 

Who is about as big as this line? 

Come up, Harry. Now count. Just four feet. 
Call upon a number of individual pupils. As you measure, 
have some pupil count for the class. Arrange squares in rows as 
follows : 



Point to each square, and have the pupils count. Show a gallon 
measure, and alongside of it a quart measure. Pour four quarts 
of water into the gallon measure. Use glass measures if possible. 
Count slowly as you pour — One, two, three, four. Let the pupils 
count. Use the gill and the pint in this manner. Draw the meas- 
ures on the board as follows : 





B 



Call upon individual pupils to note the number, count, etc. 



s 



SPECIAL METHODS 



3. Number forms. Mark four dots on the board. Make the 
dots two inches wide, place them two inches apart, as follows : 



:/ 



Have the pupils look at the dots and tell how many. Let 
individual pupils count the dots. Have them close eyes, and locate 
four dots by pointing in the air with their fingers. Direct them as 
follows : 

Close eyes. Try to see the dots. Point them out. 

Ready — One, two, three, four. 

Now begin at the other side — One, two, three, four. 

Open eyes. Look at the board. Close eyes. Point. 

Now all point at the door. 

Point to the ceiling — One, two, three, four. 

4. Number machines. For classroom use, the number ma- 
chine should be of a good, wholesome size, about three feet square, 
with balls two inches in diameter. The following machines explain 
themselves : 
Tillich Blocks Number steps. Russian machine 




II. Addition and Subteaction — No Carrying 

1. Counting. Direct the class as follows : 

I want three boys to stand. John, William, Henry, come 

here. 
How many boys are there? Count them. 
Come, James. How many now ? Count, them. 
Now, count as I point. One, two, three, four. 
Three and one make how many? Count. 
John, sit down. Now, how many? 



ARITHMETIC 



Pass the same questions to a number of individual pupils. Do 
not let the class answer in chorus. Insist on rapid, individual an- 
swering. Take four books, or pencils, or papers, etc., and proceed 
as follows : 

How many pencils have I? Count them. 

I give this one to John. How many are left ? 

How many did I have? What did I give? 

One from four equals how many ? 

Four less one equals how many? 

Take away one from four. Count the ones left. 

What is the remainder? 

Take away two from four, add two and two, and question as 
above. Draw four cherries (or other simple objects), on the board, 
thus: 




Rub one off, thus 



Draw it on again. Rub off some other one, as the second or third 
one. Let the pupils count as you draw. Repeat this process with 
other drawings, as the petals of a flower, steps in a stair, spokes 
of a wheel, etc. 

2. Ratio and measuring. Direct the class as follows : 

Who can take a big, long, step ? Come up and try, Henry. 
Can you step from here to the wall? Is your step long 

enough? 
How many steps must you take? Count them. 
Take three steps. How many more must you take to reach 

the wall? 



10 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Let a number of pupils take steps and pace short distances, as, 
from desk to wall, seat to door, etc Call upon pupils to count as 
the pacing is done. Draw a four-foot line on the board, thus : 




t 



1 



Explain and question as follows : 

Which line is longer? Point to it. 

Which line is shorter. Point to it. 

Count the parts in the line as I point. 

How much longer is this line ? Count as I point. 

Now I add to the short line. How many parts? 

Count — One and three? One, two, three, four. 

Three and one ? Count. 

Three from four? One from four? 

Let pupils use the foot rule and rule off a four-foot line, a 
three-foot line, a two-foot line, and a foot line. Let them count 
the parts in each. Deal with the following figures in the same 

manuer: . I 









How mauy squares in the first row? In the second row? 

Which is bigger? How T much bigger? 

Which is smaller? How much smaller? 

How many more in this row? Count as I point. 

How many less in this row ? Count. 

Make use of different measures, as, gallon-quart, pint-gill, etc. 
Let the pupils tell how many quarts you pour into the gallon meas- 
ure, how many you take out, how many are left, etc. 

3. Number forms. Draw the following on the board : 



ARITHMETIC 



11 



Rub off one unit. Replace it. Call upon pupils to give the 
number of dots left after you have rubbed one off, and after you 
have replaced it. Draw the following number forms on the board 
and indicate addition or subtraction: 



3 and 1 
1 and 3 
3+1 
1 + 3 

3 and ? = 1 

4 take away 1 
4 less 1 

4 — 1 

4 — ? = 1 

4 take away 2 
4 less 2 




r. 



2 and 2 
2+2 

1 and ? = 4 

4 take away 3 

4 less 3 

4 — 3 

4 — ? = 3 

4 — 2 

4 — ? = 2 



* 



m 



Question pupils, passing the same question indiscriminately to 
a number of pupils. Pupils who fail should be made to count the 
units. After such counting, repeat the question and ask for the 
answer. Repeated failure should be corrected by repeated count- 
ing. 

Begin with a number which is capable of analysis, and which 
correlates readily with the pupil's environment, as, two, three, or 
four. Nothing, and one, are abstractions which should be reached 
slowly and which should come out of the analysis suggested. After 
one, two, three and four, have been studied in the manner suggested, 
pass to five. Then take up ten, and analyse out of this the follow- 
ing, in the order given : Six, nine, eight and seven. Then go on 
to twenty, thirty, etc., up to one hundred. 



III. Addition and Subtraction — Carrying, Borrowing 

1. Counting. Arrange a series of dots on the board as follows: 



12 SPECIAL METHODS 

Question and direct, thus: 

Count up to the line. (Nine). Count past the line. 

(Fourteen). 
How many dots after the line ? (Five) Before ? (Nine) . 
Nine and five ? Count them. 
Five and nine? Count. 

Write the figures on the board as follows : 

9 and 5 9 5 5 and 9 Add 5 and 9. 

9 +_ 5 +5+9 5+9 Sum of 5 and 9. 

With the addition of 5 and 9 take up the correlated subtrac- 
tion. Eub off dots and question the pupils, thus : 

Count the dots. 

Count them now. (With 5 rubbed off). 

Count them now. (With 5 added). 

How many did I rub off ? 

How many left ? Count them. 

Five from fourteen" 

If I take away 5 how many left? 

14 less 5? 14 — 5 equals? 

Subtract 5 from 14. Count those left. 

Vary the subtrahend by making it 6, 7, 8, etc. Return to the 
diagram again and again and test the result by having the pupils 
count. 

After 14, take 24. Analyse the number as follows: 



( 10 

24=10 + 14 V 14 

— 9 = — 9 — _9 

10+5 

If the children have difficulty in understanding the example, 
illustrate it by two rows of dots, thus : 



••■■"■■•■•iWBl/ 



ARITHMETIC 13 

Let the pupils give the answers of series of examples like the 
following : 

9 19 29 39 49 59 69 79 89 99 

+ 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 -f 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 

9 19 29 39 49 59 69 79 89 99 

_5 _5 _5 _5 _5 — 5 — 5 — 5 — 5 — 5 



5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 

+ 9 -f 9 + 9 -f_9 +_9 -f_9 +_9 +_9 +_9 +_9 

5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 

— 5 — 9 — 9 — 9 — 9 — 9 — 9 — 9 — 9 — 9 



If pupils do not seem to get the answer return to the visual 
presentation. If, for example, 25 + 9 presents too great a diffi- 
culty, simplify the 25, and arrange a series of dots as above. 

2. Ratio and measuring. Draw a number of squares on the 
board, thus: 



Compare the two areas and question as follows : 



Which row is bigger? 

How much bigger is it? 

How much smaller is this row? 

Call the squares, square feet. 

How many square feet in this row? In this? 

How much smaller is this row? 

How much larger is this row ? 

How many square feet must be added to this row to make 

it 14 square feet? 
How many square feet must be taken away to make 9 

square feet? 
14 square feet less 9 square feet equals ? Count them. 
Take away 5 square feet from ]4 square feet. 



14 SPECIAL METHODS 

Arrange the squares as follows: 



II 




Ifll 


1 


mi 


##* 




1 f I \ \ 


. 


pS 


$$& 


- - ■ 





























Question as above. Compare lines in the same manner. Mark off 
equal divisions, and let the pupils add and subtract as above. 

3. Number forms. Draw the following on the board, making 
the dots two inches in diameter, and arranging them in squares of 
four, each square three inches from the other : 



* 




Have the pupils count, add and subtract, 
the board : 

9 and 5 9 + 5 9 5 . 14 less 9 

5 and 9 5 + 9 +5+9 14 less 5 



Write the following on 



14 — 9 
14 — 5 



14 14 
— 9 — 5 



Question as follows : 

What is the sum of 9 and 5? 

What is the sum of 5 and 9 ? 

Add 9 and 5. Add 5 and 9. 

What is the difference between 14 and 9 ? 

What is the difference between 14 and 5 ? 

From 14 take 9. Take 5. 



4. The Austrian method of subtraction, 
to the larger number, thus : 



Lei the pupils add up 



/ 



Direct them as follows : 

Which is the larger number? 
Which is the smaller number? 
Add as I point, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. 



ARITHMETIC 15 

How many were added to 4 ? 
Four and how many give 9 ? 

Pursue the same method with 14 — 9. Make dots and let the 
pupils add to 9 till they get 14. Write the following series on the 
board: 

9 19 29 39 49 59 69 79 89 99 



55.55555555 

Call upon pupils to add to 5, and mark on the board as they add. 
Let them add 10, 20, 30, etc., to complete the number, thus: 

5, 1, 1, 1, 1, = 9 

5, 10, 1. 1, 1, 1, = 19 

5, 20, 1, 1, 1, 1, — 29 

5, 30, 1, 1, 1, 1, = 39 etc. 

Write the figures on the board. Then question the pupils as 
follows : 

What did we add to 5 to get 9 ? 

How much larger is 19 ? 

How much more must we add to get 19 ? 

What did we add to 5 to get 19 ? 

Let the pupils work a number of examples of the same kind, as. 



9 


9 


9 


8 


8 


8 


7 


7 


7 10 


12 


15 


4 


5 


6 


1 


2 


3 





3 


5 3 


2 


4 


29 


39 


49 


58 


68 


98 


37 


47 


57 20 


32 


65 



14 25 36 21 32 53 20 33 45 13 12 24 

If the pupils hesitate, let them count up to the larger figure, and 
check on the board as they count. 

In examples which involve 'carrying,' proceed as follows: 

. 21 
9 
Count, 9, 10, 11. 

How much 'over' the 1 did we count ? 
Carry this below. 

21 
*9 
2 and carry 10 

9 and 2 are 11. This is 10 too much. 
Carry the 10 

21 

l 9 
12 

10 and 10 are 20. Or, 1 and 1 are 2. 



16 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Give the pupils a great deal of practice with, simple figures 
before going on with larger ones. Proceed with more difficult ex- 
amples in the same way, thus : 

321 

"58 
8 and 3 are 11. This is 10 too much. 
Carry the 10. 

321 
58 

*3 
1 and 5 are 6 and 6 are 12. 
This is 10 too much. Carry the 10. 

321 " 

58 

1 1 . 

63 

1 and 2 are 3. 

321 

58 

263 
Make use of counting, measuring and number form devices as 
suggested in the preceding paragraphs. 

5. Reading and writing of numbers. Do not begin by giving 
separate formal exercises in the reading and writing of numbers. 
Let such reading and writing be a natural feature of the work in 
addition and subtraction. "When answers run into the tens or the 
hundreds, point out that the '1' is in ten's place, and so is different 
from the '1' in unit's place. See that the children place the 
figures one under the other in addition and subtraction. Make use 
of the following device : 



200 + 30 + 1 

100 + 30 + 2 
300 + 10 + 2 



Question the pupils somewhat as follows: 

What figures take the place of the noughts V 
Where is unit's place? Ten's? 
What does '3' in ten's place mean? 

Insist on similar accuracy in the placing of figures in multiplication 
and division. 

In teaching Roman notation, make use of the one-cent piece, 
the five-cent piece, and the ten-cent piece. Spend some time in I, 



H 


T 


U 


2 


3 


1 


1 


3 


2 


3 


1 


2 









ARITHMETIC 17 

V, and X. Apply these figures to the reading of the figures on the 
clock dial. Arrange a chart as follows: 



I II III IV V 

12 3 4 5 



VI VII VIII IX X 

6 7 8 9 10 



Question the pupils as follows : 

When 'I' is in front of the 'V,' what do we have? 
When it is in front of the ' X, ' what do we have ? 
When it is after the 'V?' After the ; X?' 

Arrange the figures as follows : 

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X 
Ask the pupils to give the other forms of writing. Mix up the 
figures and repeat the exercises. 

Arrange figures as follows : 

12 3 4 5 

11 12 13 14 15 

21 22 23 24 25 

31 

Let the pupils read across. Let them complete the 30, 40, 50 rows 
and continue to 100. 

6. Gradation of work. (a) Addition 
(1) No carrying 

15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 

+3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 -[-3 +3 



6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 



15 

+13 


25 

+13 


35 
+13 


45 
+13 


55 
+13 


65 
+13 


75 
+13 


85 
+13 


95 

+ 13 


325 

+3 


425 

+3 


525 

+3 


625 

+3 


725 

+3 


825 
+3 


925 

+3 


335 

+3 


435 

+3 


325 

+13 


425 

+13 


525 

+13 


625 
+13 


725 

+13 


825 
+13 


925 

+13 


335 

+13 


435 

+13 


125 

+123 


225 
+213 


135 

+312 


235 

+332 


325 

+233 


335 

+234 


345 

+342 


415 

+443 


425 

+324 


(2) Carrying in 


10 's place 










15 

+8 


25 

+8 


35 

+8 


45 

+8 


55 

+8 


65 

+8 


75 

+8 


85 

+8 


86 

+8 



18 SPECIAL METHODS 

(2) Carrying in 10 's place — continued 

15 25 35 45 55 16 26 36 46 

+18 +18 +18 +18 +18 +18 +18 +18 +18 



115 


125 


135 


145 


215 


225 


235 


315 


345 


+8 


+8 


+8 


+8 


+8 


+8 


+8 


+8 


+8 


115 


125 


135 


145 


215 


225 


235 


315 


345 


+18 


+18 


+18 


+18 


+18 


+18 


+18 


+18 


+18 


115 


125 


135 


145 


215 


225 


235 


315 


345 


+128 


+138 


+148 


+218 


+138 


+148 


+158 


+348 


+328 



(3) Carrying in 100 's place 



151 


152 


153 


154 


155 


261 


263 


273 


381 


+81 


+81 


+81 


+81 


+81 


+81 


+81 


+81 


+81 


151 


152 


153 


154 


155 


261 


263 


273 


381 


+181 


+283 


+384 


+483 


+281 


+386 


+485 


+384 


+487 



(4) Carrying in 10 's and 100 's place 

145 245 346 347 258 269 378 489 698 

+89 +89 +89 +89 +89 +89 +89 j-89 +89 

145 245 346 347 258 269 378 489 698 

+289 +389 +489 +589 +689 +589 +389 +289 +189 

(5) Position of the '0' 

10 120 302 300 

+4 +4 +4 +4 

10 120 302 300 

+14 +14 +14 +14 



120 

+4 




302 

+4 


120 

+14 




302 
+14 


120 

+20 




302 

+30 


450 

+300 




4 


500 
-300 




603 

+300 




198 
+ 10 




397 

+3 



20 120 302 300 

+ 10 +20 +30 +40 

450 450 450 

+230 ' +300 +203 

500 500 500 

+230 +300 +203 



603 603 603 

4-230 +300 +203 

98 198 397 486 

+2 +10 +3 +14 



ARITHMETIC 19 



(&) Subtraction 

(1) No borrowing 

15 25 35 45 
—3 —3 —3 —3 



15 


25 


35 


45 


—13 


—13 


—13 


—13 


325 


425 


525 


625 


—3 


—3 


—3 


—3 


325 


425 


525 


625 


—13 


—13 


—13 


—13 


325 


425 


525 


625 


—113 


—213 


—313 - 


-413 



55 


65 


75 


' 85 


95 


—3 


—3 


—3 


—3 


—3 


55 


65 


75 


85 


95 


—13 


—13 


—13 


—13 


—13 


725 


825 


925 


335 


435 


—3 


—3 


—3 


o 
-i 


—3 


725 


825 


925 


335 


435 


—13 


—13 


—13 


—13 


—13 


725 


825 


925 


335 


435 


-513 


—613 


—713 


—123 


—234 



(2) Borrowing in 10 's place 

15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 

_8 —8 —8 —8 —8 —8 —8 —8 —8 



25 


35 


45 


55 


- 18 ■ 


— 18 - 


- 18 


— 28 


115 


125 


135 


145 


—8 


—8 


—8 


—8 


195 


125 


135 


145 


—18 


—18 


—18 


—18 


225 


235 


245 


255 


-118 


—118 - 


—118 


—128 



65 


'75 


85 


95 


55 


- 28 - 


- 28 - 


- 38 ■ 


— 38 


— 38 


215 


225 


235 


345 


455 


—8 


—8 
225 


— ,^ 


— s 
345 


— s 


245 


235 


455 


—18 


—18 


—IS 


—18 


—18 


265 


275 


285 


395 


495 


-128 - 


-128 - 


-138 • 


—138 


—138 



(3) Borrowing in 100 's place 

234 235 236 347 348 349 456 457 458 

.81 — 81 — 81 — 82 — 82 — 82 — 83 — 83 — 83 



234 235 


236 


347 348 


349 


456 


457 


458 


—181 —181 


—181 


—182 —182 


—182 - 


-283 


—283 


—283 


(4) Borrowing in 


10 's and 100'; 


3 places 








231 331 


341 


351 321 


421 


521 


631 


642 


—56—66 


— 76 


—87—97 


— 79 - 


- 89 


— 98 


— 53 


231 331 


341 


351 321 


421 


521 


631 


642 


—156 —266 


—176 


—187 —197 


—279 - 


-289 


—398 


—553 



20 SPECIAL METHODS 

(5) Position of the '0.' 

10 120 302 300 20 120 302 300 300 
—4 —4 — 1 -4 -14 -14 —14 —14 —104 

Use the simpler form in explaining any of the examples to the 
pupils. If the children, for example, do not understand how to do 
subtraction with three figures, go back to subtraction with one 
figure. The same process will be found to apply. Do not proceed 
too rapidly towards the more difficult examples. Let the pupils 
understand thoroughly the different phases of subtraction with 
one figure before attempting more difficult examples. 

IV. Tables 

1. From addition. Arrange sums on the board as follows : 

2 3 4 

2 3 4 

2 3 4 

2 3 4 

Question the pupils, giving the same question to a number of 
the pupils: 

Add the column. 

"What is your answer, John. William. Henry. Etc. 

How many 2's are there? 

What do they equal? 

How many times is the number 2 taken? 

Four 2's equal what? 

What is 4 times 2 ? 

2. From counting. Arrange the series on the board as follows: 

2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, etc. 

3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, etc. 

4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, etc. 

Indicate the number of times the 2 is taken by the following : 
2xll|2[3]4|5678 
| 2 | 4 | 6 j 8 | etc. 
Have the children count and give the 'times tables' with 
each count thus : 

2, 4—2 2's are 4. 

2, 4, 6—3 2's are 6. 

2, 4, 6, 8—4 2's are 8. 

2, 4, 6, 8, 10—5 2's are 10. 

Show that the position of the figure in the series indicates the 
number of times the 2 has been taken. 



ARITHMETIC 



21 



3. From ratio and measuring-. Draw a series of areas on the 
board. 



CD 



rr, 



n 



luuA 



T77J) 

y/A 



'Question as follows 



Which is bigger .' 

How many times bigger is the second one .' 

How many times bigger is the third one? 

Arrange a series of squares in rows. Question the pupils thus 

I 




22 SPECIAL METHODS 

How many 4's in the first row? In the second? 
Count them. 

If one row has 4 square inches, how many have 2 rows?' 
Three rows? Four rows? 

Two times 4 square inches equals what? 
Three times 4 square inches? Four times? 

Show a gallon measure and draw it on the board. Indicate the 
four quarts. 





Question and explain : 

If one gallon holds four quarts, what will two hold? 

Seven quarts? No. Now come up and count each quart 
as you point. 

Eight quarts? Eight. Now, how many in two gallons? 
Nine? No; count again. 

Eight quarts? Eight. How many quarts in two gallons? 
Eight? Yes, that is very good. Henry count; Wil- 
liam, Eose. Now count by two's. 

In three gallons, how many quarts? In four, etc. 

Call on individual pupils only. Let several answer the same ques- 
tion, count, etc. 

4. Number forms. Draw the following, making the dots 
2 inches in diameter and spacing them 2 inches apart: 



ARITHMETIC 



23 




*MnW9«roni (ww^aa ^ i« i m, F ■■»— 



Arrange the dots as follows 



2- 3 H- 3" 



. 1 


• j 


• 


# 


• 


• 


1 • 


• 


' 









*• H- k g 



lo 



Have the pupils give the table as follows: 

Two times 1 are 2. 
Two times 2 are 4. 
Two times 3 are 6. 
Two times 4 are 8. 

Have the tables verified by counting the number of dots, singly 
and by two's. 



24 



SPECIAL METHODS 



5. Formal arrangement and study. 

board as follows : 



Arrange the tables on the 



1 


2=2 


1X2= 2 


2X1= 2 


2 


2's = 4 


2 X 2= 4 


2X2= 4 


B 


2's= 6 


3X2= 6 


2X3=6 


4 


2's= 8 


4X2=8 


2X4=8 


5 


2's=10 


5x2= 10 


2X5 = 10 



Do not attempt formal study till the pupils have slowly added,. 
counted, measured, etc. Let them see that the process 'times' 
means something'. Then let them study the tables as follows: 



Read slowh 

1 2 is 2. 

2 2's are 4. 

3 2's are 6. 

4 2's are 8. 

5 2's are 



as I point. Ready: 



2, 4. 

2, 4, 6. 

2, 1, 6, 8. 
2, 4, 6, 8, 10. 
Look at the first five lines, 
('lose eyes. Repeat the table. 
What are 4 2's? Etc. 



10. 



Then let the pupils write what they have visualized. See that 
they copy the table correctly. Then clean the board, have the class 
turn papers over and repeat the table. Let some pupils recite, 
while others check them with papers in hand. 

6 Gradation of work. 



Easy 


Medium 
Three 


Diffien 


1X3 


4X3 


'7X3 


2X3 


6X3 


8X3 


3X3 


0X3 




10X3 






5X3 


Four 




1X4 


9 X 4 


7X4 


2X4 


6X4 


8X4 


3X4 






4X4 






10X4 






5X4 







ARITHMETIC 25 

Easy Medium Difficult 

Five 

1 X 5 9 )< 5 6X 5 

2X5 7X5 

3X5 8X5 

4 X 5 

5X5 
10 X 5 

Six 

1X6 4X6 7X6 

2X6 8X6 

3X6 5X6 
10 X 6 9X6 

6X6 

Seven 

1X7 3X7 1 X 7 

2X7 9X7 6X7 
10 X 7 5X7 8X7 

7X7 

EigJi t 

1X8 3X8 4X8 

2X8 9x8 7X8 
10 X 8 6X8 

8.X 8 5X8 

Nine 

1X9 3X9 4X9 

2X9 5X9 6X9 

10 X 9 7X9 

9X9 8X9 

Alter the 2. 3, 4 and 5 tables have been taught, pass to the 
10 and 11 tables. The 6 and 8 tables should come next, and the 
7 and 9 tables last. In the 9 tables, show that the sum of the fig- 
ures of the product always equals 9. e. g., 1 and 8. 2 and 7 
3 and 6, etc. 

V. Multiplication 

1. One order. (a) No carrying. Give examples which are 
simply an application of the tables, as follows : 

111 112 211 231 123 1234 2341 3214 

X2 X3 X4 X3 X2 _xl ^<2 _X2 

122123 121034 201033 222222 333333 
X3 X2 X3 X4 X3 



26 SPECIAL METHODS 

100 200 300 102 103 302 304 201 
X9 X4 X3 X4 X2 Xl X2 X3 



Have pupils rapidly read off the answers as you point. Let 
pupils write the answers of two or three of the examples. Work 
them on the board. Note whether the pupils are writing down the 
answers correctly or not. Write the correct answers on the board 
so that the pupils may compare. 

(&) Carrying. Give examples in which the product of the 
first figure with the multiplier runs over ten, thus : 

42 31 53 60 71 82 93 53 
X3 X4 X3 X5 X4 X4 X2 X2 



Have pupils read off the answers and write them down as they 
are read. Let the pupils write down the answers. Give further 
examples, as follows: 

421 312 532 600 701 820 933 534 

X3 X4 X3 X5 X4 X4 X2 X2 



Then pass to examples in which the product of the last figure 
with the multiplier runs over ten. Treat the example as a simple 
phase of addition, with carrying. 
Give examples as follows: 

19 28 46 238 249 2309 4208 30108 
X2 X3 X2 X2 X2 X3 X3 X4 



Explain the process by analysing the multiplicand, thus 



19 = 10+ 9 

X2 X 2 


(V 

X2 


38 = 20 + 18 = 18 

+ 20 


18 
20 



38 38 



ARITHMETIC 



27 



2. Two orders. As a preliminary step, give a series of 
examples in which the multiplier is a multiple of 10, thus : 

2 3 4 5 22 34 56 35 

X10 X20 X30 X40 XlO XlO X20 X40 



Let the pupils read the answers and write them on the board as 
they are read, e. g., 'No 2's are 0. One 2 is 2. Answer, 20.' Show 
how the same answer is obtained by analysis of the multiplicand, 
thus: 



22 20+2 
X 10 - X io 



220 



20 
200 



220 



( 2 2 °) 

xio 

20 

200 



220 



Give examples in which the multiplier can be analysed, thus 
22 22 

xn = x (10 + D 



22 
220 



22 
220 



22 



22 

220 



Work out the same steps without carrying the 0, thus 
22 22 

xn = x(io + i) X 



22 

(aJ) 



22 
22 



22 

22 



22 
22 



Have the pupils work out examples as follows : 

34 45 78 49 23 76 34 49 89 
Xll Xll Xll Xll X12 X12 X13 X21 X32 



28 



SPECIAL METHODS 
3. Gradation of work. 



(a) 


23 
X3 


34 

X2 


223 
X3 


331 
X2 


443 
X2 


2341 

X2 


23412 
X2 


Q>) 


71 
X3 


82 
X4 


712 
X3 


923 
X2 


821 
X4 


5221 
X4 


92130 
X3 


(c) 


17 

X3 


28 


217 
X2 


329 
X3 


218 
X5 


2124 
X4 


21029 
X2 


(d) 


17 
X6 


28 
X5 


217 
X6 


329 
X5 


218 
X7 


2125 
X5 


21029 
X6 


(*,) 


23 
X33 


34 

X 22 


223 
X33 


331 

X 22 


443 

X22 


2341 

X22 


23412 
X22 


(/) 


23 
V77 


34 
X44 


223 
X56 


331 

X 88 


843 

X44 


2341 

X47 


73412 
X89 


(9) 


23 
X17 


34 

X28 


223 
X36 


331 

X 28 


443 

X27 


2341 
X29 


23412 
X17 


(h) 


23 
X71 


34 
X82 


223 
X63 


331 

X 82 


443 

X72 


2341 
X92 


23412 
X71 


(*) 


223 
X103 


334 

X407 


245 
X809 


809 
X703 


708 
X450 


8009 
X508 


7005 
X780 








VI. 


Division 







1. Sharing or partition. Call four pupils and ask them to 
stand in front of the class. Count out 16 pencils and hold them. 

Question pupils as follows: 

Plow many pupils are standing in front of the room ? 

How many pencils have I? 

Share them among the 4 hoys. How many will each one 

get? 
Count them. 
If each boy has 4 pencils, how many pencils have the four 

boys :' 
Share 20 pencils among the four boys. 
Share 24 pencils among the four boys? 



ARITHMETIC 



29 



Draw 24 squares on the board in rows of 6. Call on pupils 
to divide the squares into 4 equal parts, thus : 



j n n-ntninntemmmui 



mmmmmmmmtmmmmnim 



ttmm 



a<itiiirirtWmiffBOTI^ 



Call for six equal divisions. Question pupils as follows : 

If you divide 24 into 6 parts, how many in each part 
6 into 24 = ? 4 into 24 = ? 

Write the example on the board as follows : 

4 )24 6 )24 24 -f- 4 244-3 4 into 24 = ? 

2. Ratio. Draw the following' figures on the board: 







w 






30 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Question pupils as follows : 

"Which is larger? 

How much larger is it? 

How many times will the small figure go into the large 

one? 
Count the number of times. 
Suppose the small square is cut up into 4 parts, thus: 




and the large figure into 24 parts, thus: 




How many times will the one go into the other ? 
4 into 24 = ? 
24 -^ 4 = ? 
4)24 

3. Measuring or division. Draw a 24-inch line on the board, 
and under it a 4 inch line. Indicate the inches. 



+ 



i n fc niWBii m i fni mil 



^mmmm 



ARITHMETIC 



31 



Question a number of pupils, 
several pupils. 



Pass the same question among 



How many inches in the longer line? Count them. 
How many inches in the shorter line? " Count them. 
How many times will the one go into the other? 
Watch as I mark off every 4 inches on the longer line. 
How many divisions have I made? Count them. 
4 inches into 24 inches, how many times? 
24 inches will hold 4 inches how many times? 
4 into 24 = ? 24 ~ 4 = ? 4) 24 

4. Tables. Apply tables which are well known. Have pupils 
give missing factors and parts within the tables. Arrange the 
tables as follows: 



1X4 = 


= 4 


IX 


= 4 


4X 


= 4 


2X4 = 


= 8 


2X 


= 8 


4X 


= 8 


3X4 = 


= 12 


3X 


= 12 


4X 


= 12 


4X4 = 


= 16 


4X 


= 16 


4X 


= 16 


5X4 = 


= 20 


5X 


= 20 


4X 


= 20 




% of 4 = 






i/ 2 of 4 = 






y 4 of 8 = 






y 2 of 8 = 






% of 12 = 






1/3 of 12 = 






i,i of 16 = 






1/4 of 16 = 






1/4 of 20 = 






1/5 of 20 = 





Question pupils rapidly as follows: 

7 X 4 = ? 

4x 7- = ? 

4 into 28? 

i/4 of 28 = ? 

Four 6's? Six 4's? 

4 into 24? 6 into 24? 

1/4 of 24? i/ 6 of24? 



32 



SPECIAL METHODS 



5. Number forms. Arrange a series of dots on the board in 
rows of four: 



* * * * 9 
• • • • • • 



Question as follows : 

How many rows are there? 

How many dots in one row ? In two rows ? In three ? 

How many dots altogether? 

How many divisions of four each are there? 

4 into 24=? 24-f-4 = ? 4 )24 

i/i of 24 = ? 6 into 24 = ? 6) 24 

To introduce the pupils to division, it will not be necessary to 
use all of the visual appeals above suggested. Use now one, now 
the other. Squares, dots, lines, tables, etc., will afford variety in 
the different lessons. 

6. Short division. Write a series of examples on the board. 
Use figures which come well within the tables, thus: 



4)24 


6)24 3)27 9)27 8)32 4)32 


4)244 


6)246 3)273 9)279 8)328 4)324 


4)240 


6)240 3)270 9)270 8)320 4)320 



ARITHMETIC 



33 



Introduce the notion of a remainder by examples similar to 
the following: 

4)4 4)5 4 )6 4 )7 4 )8 4)_9_ 4)10 
4)12 4 )13 4 )14 4)15 4)24 4)25 4)27 

Illustrate the simpler examples by the following diagrams : 



aH 




Let the pupils give the answers as you point to the examples. 
When there is a remainder, have pupils give the quotient and the 
number over, e. g., 1 and 3 over. Analyse more difficult examples 
in the following manner : 



10 



















2)30 


2 


20 = 10 


2)30(10 + 5 


2)30 


20 


— 


10= 5 


20 

To 


10 


10 


30 = 15 


5 


10 






10 





Have pupils give answers to the following examples: 
2)32 2)34 2)36 2)35 2 )37 2)50 
3)75 2)78 4 )72 4 )96 5 )75 6 )98 

If necessary, analyse some of the examples in one of the ways 
suggested above. 

7. Long division. Have pupils work out longer examples of 
the type, 6)3451. Arrange the work as in long division and analyse 
the steps as follows: 



34 



SPECIAL METHODS 



5 










7 



5 


6)3 4 


5 


1 


3 








4 5 


1 


4 2 





3 




3 



3000 = 500 
420= 70 
30= 5 
1= + 1 



3451 = 575 + 1 



5 


1 7 


5 


6)3 4 
3 


5 


1 


4 
4 


5 

2 




3 
3 


1 





Lead the pupils to more difficult examples by graded steps. 
Give examples of the following kind: 



21)42 21)420 21)421 21)422 21)423 to 21)4221 

Give similar series in which the divisor consists of t wo fig ures, 
and the dividend of some multiple, e. g., 32)3262, 24)4872, etc. 
Question and explain as follows: 

Suppose we divide 420 by 21 ? 

21 into 42? Into 0? 20 X 21? Work it out. 

21 into 421? Into 422? 423? 424? 

21 into 4219? Into 4220? 

How many more are needed to contain 21 ? 

21 into 42? Into 21? 

How many times into the 2? 

Now, note the places : 



2 





1 


21)4 2 
4 2 


2 


1 


2 





2 

2 


1 
1 



Give the pupils one example at a time with divisor two places, 
and dividend four places. Work out the example each time and 
note how many pupils get each step. Keep the pupils to examples 
of this grade of difficulty. First let the children work examples 
without a remainder. Introduce remainders slowly. Give divi- 
dends of five and six places after the children have attained some 
skill in the simpler division. 



ARITHMETIC 35 

8. The Austrian method of division. In the Austrian method 
•only the remainders are put down. In working out the example, 
the following form is used : 

2 j 1 i 7 



2 1)4 5 j 6 | 3 
^3~ 6 j 
15 3 



6 
Orally, the explanation would run somewhat as follows : 

2X1= 2 and 3 over, 
2x2=4 and over ; 

1X1= 1 and 5 over, 
1X2= 2 and 1 over ; 

7x1= 7 and 6 over, 1 to carry. 
7X2 = 14 and 1 are 15. 

The Austrian method of division assumes considerable skill in 
the Austrian method of subtraction. The two must go together. 
9. Gradation of work, (a) Short division. (1) No re- 
mainders. 

7)77 8)88 9)99 8)56 9)63 6)54 8)72 8)48 

7)777 8 )888 9 )999 8 )568 9 )639 6 )546 8 )728 

7)714 8)816 9)927 8 )856 9 )981 6 )606 8 )808 

7 )147 8 )168 9 )189 8 )176 9 )198 6 )204 8 )512 

6 )1002 8 )1000 4 )1000 7 )2002 9 )4005 7 )5005 

(2) Remainders. Same as above, with the dividend increased 
hy 1, 2, 3, etc. 

(6) Long division. (1) No remainders. 

21)21 21)42 21)63 21)84 34)68 42)84 25)75 



21)210 21)231 31)310 31)341 56)560 56)616 
21)168 21)189 32)192 43)172 65)325 78)702 



21)1701 32)1952 64)1984 64)2048 75)3300 73)2774 
21)2121 21)4263 21)4305 32)6592 74)22570 

(2) Remainders. Same as above, with the dividend increased 
hy 1, 2, 3, etc. 



CHAPTER III 
ARITHMETIC — VISUAL (Concluded) 

VII. The Fraction 

1. As equal division. Draw a series of squares on the board. 
Cut them up on the basis of two : 



HI 




ffl 




Question and explain as follows : 

This is 'One.' I cut it 'in half.' (Write y 2 in the half). 

How many parts in this square ? Count them. 

How many in this square? Count them. 

Two parts gave us the Yo- Four parts will give us the Vk- 

This is ] 4- What are these two parts called? 

What is this part called? Count all the parts. 
Proceed in a similar manner with thirds, sixths, etc. Insist on a 
distinct pronunciation of the 'th.' 

2. As ratio. Draw two rectangles on the board. Divide one 
into two equal parts, as below: 





Question as follows: 

Which is larger? How much larger? 

Which is smaller? How much smaller? 

How many times will 1 go into 2? 

What part will 2, the large figure, go into 1, the small 
figure ? 

What part of 2 is one? 

Tf the big figure is 1, what is the small figure? 
Call on individual pupils, passing the same question among a 
number of pupils. Allow no chorus answering. 



3G 



ARITHMETIC 37 

Illustrate parts further as follows: 

□ cu. rm 

o=) cm Trr 

Question the pupils: 

What part of 2 is 1 ? 
What part of 3 is 2 ? Of 4 is 3 ? 
What part of 2 is 3 ? 

What follows the expression 'part of,' the numerator or 
the denominator? 

Change the form of the question to '2 is what part of 3?' Show 
the class what part of a quart a pint is, what part of a gallon 
a quart is. and so on. 

3. As remainder. Draw two rectangles on the board and 
divide them into equal parts as below : 




Count the squares in the tirst figure. In the second figure. 
How many times will the first surface fit into the second ? 
What is left? What part of the first surface is it? 
What part of the first surface will go into the remaining 

part ? 
What is half the smaller surface? Look at it. 
What is the remainder ? 

4. Formal study. Use the above diagram. Write a series of 
fractions on the board, naming the denomination, thus : 

12 3 4 
Fourths. Denominator, 4. — — — — 

4 4-14 

123456 7 8 
Eighths. Denominator, 8. — _ _ — _ _ — — 

88888888 



38 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Question as follows: 

When the denominator is 4, how many parts are taken? 
Read the fractions which have 4 as the denominator. 
Read the fractions which have 8 as the denominator. 
What is the name of this fraction? (Point). 
What is the name of this? Of this? 
(Insist on rapid individual answering). 

Proceed in a similar manner with thirds, sixths, ninths, twelfths, 

etc. 

Introduce the pupils next to the name, 'numerator,' as 

follows : 

Numerator, or number of parts 3 

Denominator, or name of fraction 8 

Question as follows : 

What is the denominator of the fraction ? 

How many eighths are taken? What is the numerator? 

Point to a fraction which has 3 as the numerator. 

Give a fraction which has 3 as the numerator. 

Write two or three fractions which have 3 as the numerator. 

If I write 3 here, what is it called ? What is it called here ? 

Have pupils come to the board and read and name the parts of 
fractions, e. g., 'Two-thirds, numerator 2, denominator 3.' Point 
to parts of a fraction and let pupils give the name, as, numerator 
or denominator. 



VIII. Fractions, Reduction and Cancellation 
1. Reduction. Draw three large squares on the board, one 
divided into halves, one into quarters and one into eighths. Name 
the parts, thus: 






Have the pupils visualise the lower half of each of the three 
figures. Call attention to the equal size. Call attention to the small- 
ness of the parts. Question as follows: 



ARITHMETIC 39 

How many parts in this half I In this half ? 

This part is called a half. What are these two parts called? 

Why are they called quarters? Count the parts. How 

many parts are taken? 
What does y 2 = in this figure ? 

2 — 4 ? 4 — ? 



21X1 




= ? 



2|X2 
Write the following series of fractions on the board : 

11 1 1 _ 1 1_ 

2 ~ 4 2 ~~ 6 2 ~ 8 2 — 10 2 — 12 2 — 14 

Refer to the diagram if the pupils hesitate or do not seem to 
understand. Show the process of obtaining the result by multiply- 
ing both numerator and denominator by the same number. Re- 
verse the process and have pupils reduce the following series : 

X =? T =? T =? 6 • 8 • 9 l 

2. Cancellation. Draw a series of squares on the board some- 
what as follows : 




Apply the tables and question as follows 
What is 2X 1? % of 2? 



What 


is 2X2? i/> 


of 4? 


2X3? 


y 2 of 6 ? 




2X4? 


i/ 2 of 8 ? 




Look. 


Count all the 


squares. 


2 into 


4? y 2 of 4? 




2 into 


6? 1/2 of 6? 




2 into 


8? Vo of 8? 





Count half of them. 



40 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Proceed in a similar manner with thirds and fourths, keeping 
within the tables. Pass questions rapidly among the pupils and 
insist on individual answering. Use the following figure for thirds: 



Question as follows: 

What is V% of these ? Count them. Mark them off with the 

pointer. 
What are % • Count them. 
Take % of 3 ? Of 6 ? Of 9 ? Of 18. Of 27. 

Have the pupils count out the number in the two-thirds if neces- 
sary. Let them see that if one-third equals 2, for example, two-thirds 
will equal two times 3, or 6. Arrange a series of examples as follows : 
i/ 3 of 6 %of 6 1/3 of 9 % Of 9 
2/3 of 12 %ofl5 2/3 f 24 2/ 30 f36 

Illustrate y 2 of y 2 , % of %, etc.. by the following diagrams: 






Show that y 2 of % is the same as 



1X2 2X1 



2X3, 3X2 
pupils read the answers at sight of such examples as, 
y 2 ot%, y s oi%, 2/ 30 f%, % of %, etc. 

Combine factoring and cancellation : 



6 2X3 
9 3X3 



18 
24 



2X3X3 
2X3X2X2 



Let the 



ARITHMETIC 



41 



3. Gradation of work. 

(a) Reduce to 8ths, 16ths, 24ths, or 48ths : 

y 2 , %, %, %, %, %• 

Reduce to 24ths, 36ths, or 48ths : 

%, V-i, Ve, Vs, %, %, % 
Reduce to 30ths : 

%, %, Ve, %, 3 /io, 8 /l5, 14 /15 
Reduce to 24ths, 36ths, or 48ths : 

%, %, 7 /s, 7 /i2, etc. 
( 6 ) Reduce to lowest terms : 

%, %, 10 /l2, 1 %4, 2 %6, 10 /20, 24 %60, etc. 

(c) Change to an improper fraction: 

li/ 2 , 2i/ 2 , 3i/ 2 , 1%, 22/,, 33/ 4 , 5%, etc. 

(cZ) Change to a mixed number: 

%, %, %. n /3, 15 / 2 , 2 %, 2 %, 50 /n, etc. 

(0 % of 4, y 3 of 27, % of 12, % of 36, 

3/4 of 15, % of 16, % of 11, % of 14, etc. 

(/) %of%, l / 3 of%, %of%, % of i% 6> etc. 
% of %, % of i% 7| % of %, % of y 10 , etc 

((/)i/ 2 of3%, %of4i/ 2 , 3/ 4 of9y 9 , % of 1H/7. etc. 
1% X 2%, 2% X 3i/ 2 , 53/ 5 X 62/ 7; 33/ 8 X 8%. etc. 

IX. Fractions. Simple Processes 

1. Addition and subtraction. Draw a square on the board 
divided as follows : 




42 SPECIAL METHODS 

Explain and question as follows: 

Add one apple and one. apple. One book to one book, etc. 
What is one-quarter and one-quarter? 
Add % and %. Add % and %. Count them. 
Read the answers of 1% + %, 1% + 2%, l 1 /! + 3%. 

1/4 % i/4 1% 1% 3i/ 4 

444 ±% +% +J4 ±1% +lij 

Question in a similar manner for subtraction. Give similar 
lessons on sixths and eighths, using board diagrams like the one 
above. Pass questions rapidly round the room, giving the same ques- 
tion to a number of pupils, and insisting on individual answers. 

Draw two figures on the board showing halves and quarters, 
thus: 





Question, and point as you question. Give the same question to 
a number of individuals. Allow no chorus answering. 



!/2 = now many 4ths ? 






Add % to %. Add % and %. 






1/4 % 1/2 1/2 I1/2 


1% 


1% 


+1/2 +% +!/4 +% + 1/4 


+ II/4 


+31/0 



Question in a similar manner for subtraction, using the terms, 
'From — take, Subtract, Less.' Allow no chorus answering, and 
return again and again to inattentive pupils or to pupils who have 
missed. 

Present the least common multiple as a necessary part in the 
addition and subtraction of fractions. Write the different denomi- 
nators on the board, thus : 

2 4 8 
Direct the pupils as follows: 

What number will contain each of the three numbers ? 
Why is 16 too large? Try another one. 
Let the pupils find by inspection, the least common denomina- 
tors in this manner. 



ARITHMETIC 43 



2. Gradation of work, (a) Identicals. 
(1) Addition. 



% 1/3 

+1/4 +1/3 


!/6 

+% 


11/4 

+1/4 


31/5 

+2% 


5% 
+33/ 8 


% % 

+y 5 +% 


7 /9 
+ % 


1% 

+% 


23/ 5 

+53/5 


8% 

+37/9 


{2) Subtraction. 








% % 

-1/4 — % 


% 
— % 


3% 

-1/4 


33/4 

-iy 4 


8% 
-61/9 


31/4 51/5 
- 3 /4 — % 


8% 
— % 


51/4 
-33/4 


81/3 

—3% 


85/ 7 

—6% 


(&) Factors. 










(1) Addition. 










1/2 % 
+1/4 +1/2 


1/3 
+1/6 


% 
+1/6 


31/3 
+H/6 


33/5 

+42/10 


1/2 % 

+ 3 /4 +% 


% 
+% 


% 
+% 


11/2 

+33/4 


57/9 

+3% 


(2) Subtraction. 








1/2 % 
-1/4 -1/4 


% 
-1/4 


H/2 
-1/4 


31/2 
-11/4 


8y 9 

-51/3 


11/4 31/4 
—1/2 — % 


51/4 
— % 


31/3 
— 1% 


91/2 
-33/4 


81/5 

— l 9 /io 


(c) Primes. 










(1) Addition. 










1/3 1/2 

+1/2 +% 


1/3 

+1/5 


31/3 

+1/4 


7% 

+8% 


51/5 

+3% 


% % 
+1/2 +% 


3 /4 

+% 


4% 
+3% 


53/5 

+7% 


9% 

+8% 



44 



SPECIAL METHODS 
(2) Subtraction. 



1/2 
-1/3 


V3 
-1/5 


1/3 

-1/4 


3% 
-11/4 


5% 

-iy 3 


9 7 /s 
-31/3 


11/3 

-1/2 


51/5 
— % 


8I/4 

-3% 


5% 
-1% 


33/ 7 

-1% 


9% 

-3y 7 



(d) Miscellaneous. 
(1) Addition. 

6% 

+55/i2 



l 7 /l2 

+ 31%8 



H/2 
31/3 

+41/4 



31/4 

1% 
+21/3 



4% 
-57/12 

6% 
4% 



+3 



(2) Subtraction. 



3*3/18 

-l 7 /l2 



6% 
-5% 2 



8y 8 
-3 7 /i 2 



15yi 5 

+19% 

5i/4 

1 2% 

+16% 



191/9 
-I511/15 



Have the work arranged in either of the following two ways : 

12 



IV2 
31/3 

+41/4 



IV2 
31/3 
-41/4 



13 /l2 91/i 2 



12 



3. Multiplication. Write a series of fractions on the board, as 

!/ 2 % 1/4 1/5 1/6 Vl V8 % % % % % % 

Question the pupils as follows: 

Multiply each fraction by 2. By 3. By 4. 
What is 2 X 1/2? 3 X %? 4 X y 5 ? 

1X3 



3 X V2 -» 
6 X % = * 



2 X 1 
2 X 6 



3 X 1 

For further cases see Cancellation, above. Grade the work as in 
cancellation. 



ARITHMETIC 



45 



4. Division. Draw a series of squares on the board, divided as 

follows : 



Jwi 





Question as follows 



How many halves in 1? Count them. 
y 2 into 1 = * 1-^1/,= ? 
1^1/2 = 1 X 2 /i- 
Count the fourths in 1. 



V4 into 1 = 

1 -T- 1/4 = 1 



v-6 



i 
1 

l -f- Vi 
2~ i/ 2 



? 1 -r- 

X Vi. 

1 -f- 1/5 

1 
1 

3 
5 



1/. = 



1/. 



V6 

1/8 
1/2 

- 1/2 



Pass the questions rapidly round the class. Allow no chorus 
answering. Show in each case that the result is obtained by invert- 
ing the divisor and multiplying. Use similar figures to show division 
of a fraction by a fraction. Question and proceed as follows : 

How many quarters in y 2 1 



Vi into y 2 ? 


1/4 into % 


% -5- % — » 


% X *4 


% -!-%—» 


% x y 


1/2 -5- % = t 


1/2 X 4 /i 



12 



Show to the class that 4 -^ i/ 2 
t- %.; thus: 



4 -T- 



-4 



that 12 



How T many 4ths in y 2 1 
4^1/2 = 4-- % 
4 X 2 /i = 4 X % 
Which figures did we invert? 
Deal with other fractions in the same manner. 



46 SPECIAL METHODS 

If necessary, illustrate the principle of inversion by means of 
the following diagram: 




Question the pupils as follows: 

How many times does the half go into the two-thirds? 
Is there anything left over? 
What part is this remainder? 
Suppose we do the following: 

% x % = % 

% +- % = % X 2 /i = % 
=1% 

5. Gradation of work. 

Divide the following by y 2 , %, Vi, %, Ve, H,etc. 
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 34, 50, 45, etc. 

Divide the same numbers by %, %, %, %, 2/7, etc. 



l/ 2 . 


- % 


% 


-*- y 2 


% 


-*- % 


% -*- % 


iy 2 


-=- 2 


11/2 


-f- 3 


1% 


+- y 2 


3% -*■ y 3 


2i/ 2 ■ 


-*- 1% 


1% 


- 2y 2 




2y 2 
1% 


1% 
2% 




V2 + 


% 


1% + 


% 


2y 2 + 1% 




y 2 - 


% 


1% — 


y 3 


2y 2 — 


1% 




y 2 x 


% 


y 2 - 


y 3 


iy 2 + 

1% -s- 


1% 




1/0- 


% 


y 2 -*- 


% 


iy 2 



X. Rectangular Surfaces 

In the first three or four years, use surface divisions simply as 
concrete illustrations of number. In the higher grades emphasize 
the surface aspect as such. Draw a large square on the board, two 
or three feet square. Measure the sides, and divide the surface into 
square feet, as follows : 



ARITHMETIC 



47 




Question the pupils as follows : 

How long is the side? 
How long is the first row ? 
How wide is the row? 
How many square feet in the row? 
How many rows are there? 
£ 3X3 square feet = ? 
If there were 4 rows, how many square feet ? 
4X3 square feet? 5X3 square feet? 

Vary the problem and sketch a number of surfaces. Measure 
the blackboard, the door, the front side of the room, etc. Draw these 
surfaces on the board, and indicate the measurements, thus : 



r 




— xx' 




Let the pupils give the areas. Have them visualise the desk 
tops and give the approximate areas. Let them give approximate 



48 SPECIAL METHODS 

areas of the ceiling, the window, the window panes, etc. Insist on 
the expression, 4>(3 square feet, 12 >< 15 square feet, etc. The 
unit is the square foot, the square inch, etc. If any of the pupils 
hesitate, draw the figure on the board, divide it into rows, mark off 
the divisions of one row, as in the above diagram, and question as 

above. 

i 

• XL Decimal Fractions 

1. The decimal point. Teach the decimal point by means of 
problems which involve money. Give it as a bald fact. Thus, one 
dollar eighty cents is written : 

$1.80 

$1. =1 dollar. 

$ .80 = 80 cents. 

Write a bill on the board, thus : 

3 books @ $1.50 $1.50 

2 pens @ .01 02 

2 pencils© .02 04 

lbot, ink(o) .06 06 

$4.62 

Cover the dollars, and call on pupils to read off the number of 
cents. Cover the cents, and let pupils read off the number of dollars. 
Allow no chorus answering. Write a number of sums on the board. 
Bring out the following variations : 

$2.50 $10.50 

$2.05 $10.05 

$2.55 $ 1.15 

$ .05 $ 1.05 

$ .55 $10.00 

Let the pupils visualise the first five amounts. Over the dollars 
and ask pupils to read off the cents. Cover the cents and 
let pupils read off the dollars. Have pupils read off the whole 
amounts in dollars and cents. 

2. The decimal fraction. Teach the decimal fraction directly, 
without reference to the common fraction, and without any labori- 
ous development from the common fraction. Draw the following 
figure on the board. Question as follows: 



ARITHMETIC 



19 




Look at the top row. How many parts? 

Look at the side row. How many parts? 

How many rows are there ? How many parts in each row ? 

How many parts in the whole unit? 

What is one part called"? 2 parts? 3 parts? 

( 'omit off the parts in the first row ? What are they called ? 

How many parts in the half ? In the quarter? 

We write the parts as follows: 

1.00 
.01 
.10 
.50 
.25 

Have pupils read off the names of the parts as you point. Have 
them point out the parts as you name them. 

3. Addition and subtraction. Have the pupils add as you point 
to the figure on the hoard. Point across rows of 10, across two 
rows, across 15 parts, etc. Receive individual answers only, and 
give the same question to a number of pupils. Write down the 
figures. Have pupils add columns, thus : 



50 SPECIAL METHODS 



.10 


.20 


.15 


.25 


.10 


.20 


.15 


.25 


.10 


.20 


.15 


.25 


.10 


.20 


.15 


.25 



Return to the figure on the board. Cover all save one row of 
10. Call on pupils to read the number of parts Slowly cover 
2 or 3 of the units. Call on pupils to give the number left. Write 
the figures on the board and indicate the process : 

.10 .10 

— .03 —.02 



Repeat the process, showing 3 or 1 rows at a time. Write down 
the figures after getting correct answers, thus ; 



.30 .40 

— .15 —.05 



Give a number of such examples. Return to the figure if any 
of the pupils show doubt. Call attention to the position of the deci- 
mal point in each example. 

4. Multiplication. Use the same figure for multiplication. 
Expose 2 or 3 rows and ask pupils to multiply by 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. 
Write down the corresponding figures and ask for answers, passing 
rapidly from pupil to pupil : 

.10 .10 .20 .20 

X 2 X3 X2 X4 



.20 .30 .40 .80 

Call attention to the number of places in the multiplicand and 
in the product. 

Carefully mark off a single row, and in that row, one part. 
Question the pupils as follows : 

How many parts did I mark off? What do we call these 

parts ? 
What is one-tenth of these ten hundredths? 
Look at them. Count them. Take a tenth. What is the 

answer ? 



ARITHMETIC 51 

Now look at it on the board : V\o of 10 hundredths? 
Or we may write it this way : 

y 10 of .10. or, 
.1 of .10, or, 
.10 of .10, or, 
.10 

x.io 

What is the answer"? Look at the figure on the board. 

Write the answer as a decimal. 

Now what will .10 X -10 equal? 

No, .100 is not one hundredth. What is it? 

Write one hundredth. How many decimal places should 

be pointed off? 
.10X -10= .0100. 
How many places in the multiplier? 
How many in the multiplicand? 
How many in the product? 

Vary the problem, taking .10 of .20, .30, .40, etc. Write the 
figures on the board. Use the diagram to show the hundredths, 
etc., in the product. Show visually how many places should be 
pointed off. Do not at this stage try to prove the answer by work- 
ing out fractional multiplication of denominators. Leave common 
fractions out of the process till the decimals are well understood 
from the board diagram. 

Draw the same diagram on the board, i. e., ten rows of ten dots 
each. Give A^alues to it, and find the value of different parts. Thus : 

Suppose all the rows are worth 80, what is one row worth ? 
If ten 8's are 80, what is 1 worth? Count. 
How many hundredths in the one row? 
' 80 80 

X-10 X-l 

8.00 8.0 

Why do we point off two places here, and only one here? 
What will two rows equal? Three? Four? 

80 80 80 80 

X-20 X..30 X-40 X-50 



52 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Show the values by marking off the rows, and show the value 
of the parts marked off, thus: 



* 



WWW«mdMMiM.!,J l li«lUi«» i i iW« 



* 



- %0 



k 



%* - 




Vary the examples by making the whole equal 100. 200. 120, 
etc. Show the results by marking off on the figure. 

5. Division. Draw the nnit divided into 100 parts. Mark off 
a row and divide it into 2 parts, thus: 






rmmmmmt 



ARITHMETIC 53 



Question as follows 



How many hundredths in this row? 

Divide it by 2. How many now ? 

10 hundredths -=- 2 = ? 

.10-^2= ? 2) .10 

"Where is the decimal point placed in the answer ? 

How many times will 5 go into .10? 

Eepeat this process with 2, 3, 4, etc., rows. "Write down the 
process in figures as soon as the several pupils have answered the 
same question. Give the. pointing off as a purely visual process. 
Attempt no lengthy explanation by reduction to common fractions 
nor bother with the implied fractional denomination of 100. Leave 
this for further analysis and comparison. 

Use the same figure. Mark off some portion as 5 hundredths, 
as above. 

Question as follows: 

How many times will this part go into the whole row? 
How many parts in the whole row? In this row? 
The 5 hundredths into the 10 hundredths'? 
.05 into .10? .10-v- .05? 

__2. 

.05) .10 .05.). 10. 

Attempt no further analysis till the facts as visually presented have 
been properly assimilated. 

6. Common fractions and decimal fractions. Draw the unit 
upon the board and divide it into 100 parts. Divide it into quarters, 
as above. 

Question pupils as follows : 

How many parts in one quarter? Count them. 

"What does the quarter equal? 

What do .25 equal? 

One quarter of 100 hundredths = ? 



54 SPECIAL METHODS 

Write 100 hundredths this way, 1.00. 
What is one quarter of 1 . 00 ? 
Work it out. 4)1.00 
What is a half equal to? 
One-tenth. Three-tenths? Etc. 
Find the value of one-eighth. 
Find the value of one-sixth. 

Write a series of fractions on the board, as, 

i/ 2 .50 .5 % .25 .30 .3 y w % 

Have the pupils read them off as decimal fractions, and as common 
fractions. Have pupils change them from one to the other. 

7. Gradation of work, (a) Addition and subtraction. 

(1) Examples written on the board. Except for the decimal 
point these are the same as regular addition and subtraction. 

(2) Examples from dictation. Examples in which the num- 
bers have all the same denomination, as, all hundredths, all thous- 
andths, etc. 

Examples in which the numbers have different denominations, 
as some hundredths, some thousandths, some tenths, etc. 
Examples in which units enter, as 2.75, 3.5, etc. 
Examples in which ciphers enter, as 1.012, 34.04, etc. 



(&) Multiplication. 










(1) 


.234 
,X7 


.342 
X£ . 


.4563 

X15 


.4827 
X37 


.5092 
X 46 




.234 

X40 


.342 

X60 


.4563 

X500 


.4827 
X 700 


.5092 
X550 


(2) 


.234 

X-7 


.342 
X.9 


.4563 

X-15 


.4827 
X-37 


.5092 

X-46 




2.34 

X-7 


.342 

X.9 


4.563 

X-15 


48.27 
X3.7 


50.92 

X4.6 



ARITHMETIC 55 



(c) Division. 



(1) 


7). 789 
7)7.89 


(2) 


40). 4573 

.7). 770 




.7)7.770 
7.7). 777 



9). 8165 13). 45732 35). 75832 



9)81.65 13)45.732 35)75.832 



300). 4583 4000)45.34 



.9). 999 .13). 3452 .35). 75832 



.9)9.999 .13)34.52 ,35)75.832 



.9.9). 999 1.3). 34.52 3.5)78.832 



.06)360 .006)3.60 .006). 0036 .61.036 

XII. The Metric System 

1. Metric units. Do not attempt to derive any of the metric 
units from any of the other measures, as foot, yard, quart, etc. 
Present the units directly. Have one or more meter sticks before 
the pupils. Show a meter stick to the class. Measure the board 
with it. Measure the length of the door. Call attention to the 
remainders in each case. Explain and question as follows: 

In France and other countries they use a measure like this. 
"We use the yard. They use the meter. 

About how many meters long is the board ? Measure it. 

How many meters high is the door? What is the remain- 
der? 

How wide is the window ? What is the remainder ! 

If we divide the measure into equal parts, we can name 
these remainders. 

If we divide the meter into tenths, hundredths and thous- 
andths we shall have : 

1. =1 Meter ( M ) 

.1 = 1 decimeter (dim 

.01 = 1 centimeter (cm) 

.001 = 1 millimeter (mm) 

Let the pupils use rulers having millimeters, centimeters and 
decimeters marked off. Accustom them to the names, decimeter, 
centimeter and millimeter. Do not attempt to introduce new 



06 SPECIAL METHODS 

terms as Dekameter, Hektometer or Kilometer till the pupils are 
familiar with the measures above given. "Work with the meter, 
give examples in measures of length and drill on the meter and its- 
parts before using the other measures, Liter and Gram. Make 
liter measures out of pasteboard. Have a metric chart before the 
pupils. 

2. Reduction. Accustom the pupils to read off everything 
given, in terms of the Meter, Liter or Gram, as the case may be. 
Measure several of the pupils, and write down their heights in cen- 
timeters. Write on the board what the heights of boys and girls 
should be at different ages, e. g., 10 years, B. 132.6 cm, G.131.5; 
11 years, B. 137.2, G. 136.6 ; 12 years, B. 141.7, G. 145.2 ; 13 years, 
B. 147.7, G. 149.2 ; 14 years, B. 155.1, G. 153.2. These are standard 
heights of boys and girls in terms of cm. Let the pupils read them 
off in terms of the meter. Let them see the equivalents written 
both as 1.326M, and as 1 M 326. Have the centimeters read off 
also in terms of decimeters and millimeters. Measure the length 
of the room, the width, the height of the door, the length and 
breadth of the window, the length and breadth of the board, etc. 
Write down these measurements in terms of the meter, and have 
them read off in terms of the decimeter, centimeter and millimeter. 
Give similar exercises in Dekameter, Hektometer and Kilometer 
readings. Treat the Liter and Gram in a similar manner. 

3. Equivalents. Treat equivalents on a unitary basis. Have 
on the board, or on a chart, a table of equivalents, thus : 

1 M = 39.37 inches. 

1 Km = 0.62137 miles, or 3280 feet, 10 inches. 

1 L = 0.908 dry qts., or 1.0567 wet qts. 

1 Kg = 2.2046 pounds. 



1 


in. 


= 2.540 centimeters. 


1 


ft. = 


= 0.3048 meters. 


1 


yd. = 


= 0.9144 meters. 


1 


mi. 


= 1.6093 Kilometers. 


1 


qt. = 


= 0.94636 liters (wet). 


1 


gal. = 


= 3.7854 liters. 


1 


lb. = 


= 0.45359 Kilos. 


1 


qt. 


= 1.1012 liters (dry). 



ARITHMETIC 57 

Let the pupils refer to these tables while they are working their 
examples. If the examples call for the number of meters in a 30- 
yd. dash, the pupil refers to his table for the value of 1 yard in 
terms of the meter. Similar tables can be constructed for mone- 
tary equivalents. 

4. Gradation of work. Insist that no matter in what terms 
given, each of the measures should be written in terms of the unit, 
Meter, Liter or Gram. 

(a) Addition and subtraction. 

(1) All measurements of the same denomination, e. g., 
all cm or Kg or ml, etc. 

(2) All measurements of either of two denominations, 
e. g., dm and cm or cm and mm, etc. 

(3) Measurements of any of three or four denomina- 
tions. 

(b) Reduction. 

Reading of any measure in terms of the unit, or any other 
denomination. 

Change first from dc to cm, from cm to mm, etc., till some 
fluency is acquired. Rapid reading in different terms 
and writing of numbers of examples is necessary. 

(c) Equivalents. 

(1) Change within the given table of equivalents di- 
rectly, e. g., Meters to inches, Kilos to pounds, yards 
to Meters, etc. 

(2) Changes which come within the table of equiva- 
lents only indirectly, e. g., Meters to yards (result in 
inches changed to yards), cm to feet and inches (cm 
changed to M, then to inches, then to feet and inches), 
etc. 

XIII. Compound Numbers 

1. Denominate units. Some of the more common measures 
should be in the room. In addition, the blackboard and charts 
should present diagrams of the measures with their subdivisions. 
Emphasise the use of such measures as are common in business 
and household activities. Questions such as the following may 
be used : 



58 



SPECIAL METHODS 



How do you buy your milk? 

How much does a bottle hold? 

Are there any smaller bottles? 

How much does a small bottle hold ? 

Look at these different bottles. What were they used for? 

Suppose you wanted to buy apples? 

How does the grocer buy apples? Why? 

What measure is used in selling sugar? Coffee? Flour? 

How do the wholesale dealers buy and sell flour? 

2. Reduction. In the lower grades use denominate units in 
the application of the different tables. Thus, the number of pints 
to a quart will apply the 2 tables, feet to a yard the 3 table, quarts 
to a gallon the 4 table, school days the 5 table, working days the 
6 table, weekdays the 7 table, quarts in the peck the 8 table, square 
feet in a square yard the 9 table, dimes in a dollar the 10 table, 
months in a year the 12 table. Cents in a nickel, weeks in a month, 
inches in a foot, ounces to a pound, etc., can be similarly used. 
Illustrate reduction by such diagrams as the following: 



ffl 



n a 



Gallon 



4 
Quart 



2 

Pint 



a 

4 
GUI 




Bushel 



4 
Peck 



CD □ 



Quart 



2 
Pint 



ARITHMETIC 59 

"While the pupils are answering questions, have the tables ar- 
ranged as above, from left to right. Pass such questions as the 
following among the pupils: 

Change 5 gallons to quarts. 2 bushels to pecks. 

How many pints in 6 quarts? Gills in 3 pints? 

In one pint, how many gills? In 2? 3? etc. 

How many gills in 3 pints and 1 gill? 

In 3 pints alone? Add the extra gill. How many? 

Pints in 5 quarts and 1 pint? In 5 quarts? 

Quarts in 6 gallons and 3 quarts? In 6 gallons alone? 

Keep to descending reduction by such examples as these: 

Bought 3 qts. of milk and sold 3 pints. Pints left? 
Out of 7 gallons of vinegar, 3 quarts leaked out. Qts left ? 
Out of 6 bushels of apples, 5 qts. rotted. Qts. left? 
Bought 3 gallons milk. Had 2 qts. left. Qts. sold? 

Treat ascending reduction in a similar manner. Reverse the 
above examples. Keep to two orders till the pupils are more or 
less skilled in the reductions. Introduce more difficult reductions 
as follows: 

6 quarts 5 pints 
8 pints 5 gills 
4 bushels 13 pecks 

7 pecks 25 quarts 

Show how the above are the results of addition and multiplication, 
and that there is nothing involved more than simple reduction. 
Division is similarly nothing more than a form of reduction and 
should be so taught. Thus : 

4 2 

Gal Qts. Pts. 

4 )3 ■ 2 1_ 

may be done either by continuous reduction or by one reduction 
before division. Explain the former as follows : 

How many quarts in 3 gallons? 

In 3 gallons and 2 quarts? 

14 quarts -v- 4 = ? 

What is the remainder? 

How many pints in the remainder? 

In the 2 quarts and the 1 pint ? 

4 into 5 pints? 



60 SPECIAL METHODS 

In the single reduction, the gallons, quarts and pints are reduced 
to pints, divided by 4 and changed back to gallons, quarts 
and pints. Refer to the diagram whenever the pupils do not seem 
to understand the reason for the reduction. 

3. Gradation of work, (a) Reduction descending. 

(1) Two steps, as: 3 qts. to pints; 5 gal. to qts., etc. 
3 qts., 1 pint., to pints ; 5 gal., 2 qts., to qts., etc. 

(2) Three steps, as: 3 qts., to gills; 5 gal. to pints, etc. 
3 qts., 1 pt., to gills : 5 gal., 2 qts., to pints, etc. 

3 qts., 1 pt., 3 gills to gills, etc., etc. 

(3) Subtraction, as: From 3 qts. take 1 pint. 

4 gal. — 7 qts.= ? etc. 

From 3 qts. 1 pt., take 1 qt. 1 pt. 
From 4 gal. 1 qt., take 2 gal. 3 qts. 

(4) Division, as: Share 4 gallons among 6 people. 
Divide 3 qts. 2 pints, by 5. 

(b) Reduction ascending. 

(1) Two steps, as: How many quarts in 15 pints? 
Change 17 pecks to bushels, etc. 

(2) Three steps, as : Change 56 inches to yards, feet and 

inches. 

(3J Addition and multiplication, two orders, three 
orders, etc. 

Have the pupils indicate the denominations as follows when- 
ever they have to work out the example : 

4 2 4 

Gal. Qts. Pts. Gills 

4 8 2 

Bu. Pis. Qts. Pts. 

XIV. Percentage 

1. Percentage. Treat percentage simply as a way of writing 
decimal fractions of hundredths denomination. Write a series of 
decimal fractions on the board as follows: 

.34 .22 .47 .84 .75 .94 .99 .56 -.71 .18 



X 


36 
.02 


X 


36 

.00i/o 



ARITHMETIC 61 

Have thein read as hundredths and as percents. Vary the form, 
thus : 

.80 .70 .40 .50 .05 .08 .09 .03 .02 1.00 

Introduce the aliquot parts and have them read off as hun- 
dredths, as percents and as fractions : 

.25 .75 .121/2 .371/2 .871/2 .16% .831/s .331/3 .66% .14 2/7 

Give simple problems. Arrange the work on the board as 
follows : 

2% of 36=.02X36 = 

1/2% of 36= 1/2 X-36 = 

2. Interest. Explain simple examples in interest, as: Interest 
of $36 for 2 years at 2%. Question as follows: 

For 1 year what per cent, interest? 
For 2 years what is the per cent.? 
For half a year? For six months? 
Interest of $36. for 2 years at 2% ? 
What is 4% of $36. ? 
What is 4X36? Point off 2 places. 

Explain by cancellation such examples as : Interest of $48 for 
2 years, 5 months, 13 days, at 2%. Arrange the explanation on the 
board as follows : 

l YrS - = i 7 , 2 M ayS — X. 02X148. 

5 mos. = 150 days 360 

13 days = 13 days 

" 883 

883 days = oAq years. 

Question the pupils as follows : 

Where do you get 720 days? 150 days? 

Why do you divide by 360 ? 

For what time is the 2% ? 

883 
Why do we multiply it by t^tt ? 

How else can we write . 02 ? 



62 



SPECIAL METHODS 



3. Gradation of work, (a) Percentage. 



What is 
What is 

Take 2% 

What is 
What is 
What is 

(5) Interest. 
Prin. 

$48. 
$48. 
$48. 



2% of 36? What is 20% of 36? 
i/ 2 % of 36? What is 50% of 36? 

% of 36. Take 130% of 36. 

the difference between 2% of 36 and y 2 % of 36? 
the difference between y 2 and %% of 36? 
2i/ 2 % of 2i/ 2 dozen? (Gross, etc.) 



$48. 

What is 
Febr 



(Amount). 

Time 

3 yrs. 

4 yrs. 

2 yrs. 6 mos. 

1 yr. 3 mos. 15 days 

7 mos. 15 days 

2 yrs. 15 days 



Rate 

2% 

2% 

2i/ 2 % 

3% 

3i/,% 

41/2% 



the interest of $48.50 from June 10, 1912. to 
nary 8, 1915, at 5% ? 



XV. Equations 
1. The equation. In the fourth and fifth school years treat the 



equation as a sight problem, 
different values: 



Thus show 3 parts and give them 




Question as follows: 



If three parts equal 36, what does one part equal ? 

If three-quarters equal 36, what does one-quarter equal? 

How many parts are there ? What is 1 ? 

Look' at the board. How many parts .' What is one" 

In the three-quarters how many parts? 

What is one? 

In three-sevenths, how many parts? Tn 1 hive-fifths? 



ARITHMETIC 



63 



When any of the pupils show hesitation, ask for the number of 
parts and draw the corresponding diagram on the board. From 
this get the value of the one part. In the higher grades lay stress 
on the equation as such. Illustrate a simple problem, as : If 2 lbs. 
cost 36c, what will 1 lb. cost? as follows: 





2 lbs.= $ .36 
1 lb. =$ .18 

Question as follows: 

By what did I divide the 2 lbs.? 
By what did I divide the .36? 

Both sides of the equation were divided by what number? 
Suppose 3 lbs. cost .36, what number would have to be 
the divisor? 



-=-3 



3 lbs.= 
1 lb. = 



.36 
.36 



Repeat the process with an equation of the form, y 2 lb. 
costs $ .36: 

i/ 2 lb.= $ .36 
1 lb.= $ .72 

By what did I multiply y 2 lb.? 
By what did I multiply the $ .36? 

Both sides of the equation were multiplied by what 
number? 



X2 



1/9 lb.= 
1 lb.= 



.36 

,72 



Give an example like : If % of a number equals 12, what is the 
number ? Explain as follows : 

% No. = 12 

% of % — 1/3XI2 

4xy 4 = 4X12 

How many parts are there? 
Why do you take % of % ? 
One part = ? 
Four parts = ? 



64 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Suppose we arrange the work as follows : 

3/ 4 No. = 12 

-3|3/ 4 = 12 



x /4 

X 4 I y 4 



= 4 
= 16 



Why do we divide both sides of the equation by 3 ? 

How many parts are there? 

If we divide the one side by 3, by what must we divide the 

other side ? 
"Why multiply both sides by 4? 

Insist on the three steps to every equation, thus : 

(1) 34 No. = 36 

(2) y 4 =12 

(3) *i =48 

(N. B. — The form of explanation, 'If % of the number is 36, 
V4, is % of 36, or 12,' is mathematically and logically incorrect, 
since it assumes the %. The reason for the % and the process by 
which it is obtained on the basis of the %, is really the most impor- 
tant part of the operation. The pupil will just as readily assume 
Vs as Y±. Both sides of the equation resuire explanation). 

Explain profit and loss by some diagram such as the following : 




Question as follows : 



How many fourths in the cost? Fifths? Sixths? 

If we lose a quarter, how many quarters left? 

If we lose a quarter, how many quarters in the selling 

price? 
If we lose a fifth? A sixth? A seventh? An eighth? 



ARITHMETIC 65 

How many fourths in the selling price? 

How much is the selling price ? 

What is the equation? 

Suppose you had gained a fourth, what would be the 

selling price? 
Form the equation. 

2. Gradation of work. 

12 is % of what number? (More than, Less than) 

36 is % of what number? 
48 is % of what number? 

12 is % of what number? (More than, Less than) 

36 is % of what number? 
48 is % of what number? 

2 1 /2 is V-2 of what number? (More than, Less than) 

31/3 is % of what number? 

% is % of what number? (More than, Less than) 

% is % of what number? 

S. P. $360. Loss .25 Cost? 

S. P. $360. Gain .25 Cost? 

S. P. $360. Loss .15 Cost? 

S. P. $360. Gain .15 Cost? 

XVI. General Suggestions 

In selecting material which is to be used as the basis of the 
work in arithmetic use objects and parts of situations such as the 
following : 

I. Indeterminate units. 

(a) Things in the room, as number of children, seats, corners, 

pens, pencils, books, papers, etc. 

(b) Special material as blocks, splints, beads, etc. 

(c) Industries in the neighborhood, as buying and selling 

(butter, bread, eggs, milk, rolls, potatoes, meat, etc.), 
baking, manufacturing, etc. 

(d) Things and activities in the home, as brothers, sisters. 

chairs, tables, wages, rent, "expenses, savings, cooking, 
sewing, playing, etc. 



66 SPECIAL METHODS 

(e) Correlated subjects, as geography (areas, products, popu- 
lation, exports, imports, duties, etc.), science (meas- 
ures, etc.), reading, etc. 

(/) Pictures and the elements in them, as boys or girls in 
action, animals, etc. ; things of interest to children, as. 
toy trees, houses, flowers, etc. 

II. Determinate units. 

(a) Money and values in buying and selling, rent, expenses,, 
bills, etc. 

(&) Common measures, as pint-quart, quart-gallon, quart-peck* 
foot-yard, inch-foot, ounce-pound, etc. 

(c) Measures of time, as day-week, week-month, month-year,, 
minute-hour, etc. 

III. Abstract units, as dots, squares, rectangles, etc. 

IV. Figures and board work with figures. 

Present the different problems visually, but do not stop there. 
Use manual and oral appeals to bring out the aspects which were 
presented visually. Use the visual means of appeal in all the grades, 
but emphasise this appeal especially in the first, second, third 
and fourth school years. After that make a greater use of the 
manual appeal. Supplement the sensory appeals in development by 
adequate drill and review. Above all, take time and present the 
work in graded steps. Analyse the difficulties of the work and 
break it up into small parts. Whenever necessary, take one or 
more lessons to present the topic in hand. 



CHAPTER IV 
READING A.ND MEMORY— VISUAL 

I. Reading 

1. Content meaning. Introduce the lesson without books. Tell 
the story of the lesson. Bring out the meaning of the content by 
dramatic gestures and by blackboard drawings. If a chart or 
finished blackboard illustration is used, point to the scenes, back- 
ground, action, figures, etc., as you tell the story. If the illustrating 
is done while the story is being told, sketch rapidly without any 
attempt at finished work. The story of the Three Piggy Wigs 
would be illustrated with a sketch somewhat as follows : 



■4&~ 



S*#« 













68 



SPECIAL METHODS 




One night the wind blew hard, 
and shook the apple trees, 
and all the little apples I fell off. 

When the Pigs awoke (in the morn 
ing,) they looked (out of the window,) 
and saw all the little red apples 
(on the ground,) and they said, 
We will go (across the river,) 
and eat little red apples, 
and make ourselves fat.' 



49 



Page from The Progressive Road io Beading, Book 2, 
by Georgine Burchill, "William L. Ettinger, and Edgar 
Dubs Shimer. 



READING 



69 



The story would accompany the blackboard work somewhat in this 
manner : 

Once upon a time three little piggies lived in a house. 
(Draw the house). 

See, now inside of this house were the three piggies, 
big piggy wig, middling piggy wig, and little piggy 
wig. There they are, inside of their nice little house. 

Now, near the house was a river. (Draw river). On 
the other side of the river was a big field with six apple 
trees upon it. (Draw field, with six apple trees on it). 
Some of the apples were on the trees. (Draw the apples), 
and some were on the ground. (Draw the apples on the 
ground) . 

Across this river was a bridge made of wood. ( Draw 
bridge). 

For the story of Abraham Lincoln, the drawing of a cabin and 
thick woods would suffice. The following illustration would do. 
Make no attempt at finished work. 







Give the story somewhat as follows: 

Lincoln's parents lived in a cabin. (Draw cabin). 

Now, all around were woods. (Draw forest). Lin- 
coln would often hunt in these woods and shoot wild game, 
as birds, rabbits, etc. (Draw rabbit running through 
bushes). 



70 SPECIAL METHODS 



c 



WORK AND SORROW 

James Baldwin 

In the autumn) just after Abraham Lincoln 
was e i ght years old , his parents left their, 
Kentucky home, and movedf to Spencer County,) 
f in Indiana, j 

It was not yet a year since Indiana had 
become a state. Land could be bought very 
cheap, and Mr. Lincoln thought that he could 
make a good living f for his family) He had 
heard' also that game was plentiful fin the 
Indiana woods, j 

It was not more than seventy or eighty 
miles (from the old homejrto the new.) But it 
seemed very far indeed, and it was a good 
many days before the slow-moving wagon 
reached its journey's end. {Over a part of the 
w T ay\there was no road, and the movers had to cut 
a pathfior themselves^fehrough the thick woods.) 



Page from The Howe Third Reader, by Will D. Howe, 
Myron T. Prichard, and Elizabeth V» Brown. 



READING 



71 



When they wanted to move there were no roads. 
Roads had to be cut through bushes and trees. (Rub out 
some of the trees, and draw fallen trees, bushes, etc.) 

In the story of The Little Match Girl, give the idea of cold 
and desolation by indicating snow and ice, thus: 




' ■•*»,•< *- ".., -■ •***'i*> '~ w '' 



T ~K]t£'J$®T». 



Emphasise the idea of cold in the story : 

The streets were full of snow. Snow covered the 
doorsteps. (Draw snow, and icicles on doorways). 

The wind was blowing (indicate wind by a few 
strokes on the board), and the cold snow was falling. 
(Draw snow coming heavily down). 



72 SPECIAL METHODS 

350 FOURTH READER 

THE LITTLE MATCH GIRL 

HANS CHRISTIAN ANDERSEN 

1. It was terribly cold; it snowed and it was almost 
dark; it was the last evening (of the year,) New Year's 
Eve. (In the cold and gloom) a poor little girl, (with bare 
head) and bare feet, was walking (through the streets.) 
When she left home she certainly had slippers on; but 
of what use were they ? They were very big slippers ; her 
mother had used them. 

2. The little maid had lost them as she hurried (across 
the street,) when two carriages came rattling by. One 
slipper was not to be found again, and a boy ran away 
with the other. He said he could use it (for a cradle, ) some 
day, when he had children (of his own.) 

3. So now the lit tle girl went on, and her little naked 
feet were quite red and blue (with the cold.) (In an old 
apron) she carried a number (of matches,) and a (bundle 
of them) (in her hand. ) No one had bought anything of 
her all day, and no one had given her a penny. Shiver- 
in g with the cold and hunger, the poor littlegirlcreptalong, 
a picture of misery. 

4 The snowflakes fell on her long yellow hair, which 
curled prettily (over her neck;) but she did not think of 
her curls now. (In all the windows) lights were shining, 
and there was a glorious smell of roast goose, for it was 
New Year's Eve, — yes, she thought of that! 



Page from The Buchivalter Fourth Reader, by Geof- 
frey Bttckwalter. 



READING 



73 



Illustrate the disposition of Rip van Winkle by the following 
sketch : 




2. Visual appreciation of words, phrases and sentences. Have 
your book interlined so as to be able rapidly to write words, 
phrases and sentences on the board. After the story has been told 
and illustrated, go over the main points rapidly, and write down 
the difficult words as they occur. Print them. The story of the 
Three Piggy Wigs would yield words and phrases like the fol- 
lowing : 



the apple trees 
the wind blew hard 
the little apples fell off 
when the pigs awoke 
we will go 



in the morning 
out of the window 
on the ground 
across the river 
Etc., etc. 



Point to the first word combination. Have the class look at 
the words. Pronounce them slowly. Call rapidly on a number of 
pupils to pronounce them. Pass rapidly around the class. Point to 
each word of the expression, in succession and then indiscrimin- 
ately. Call on pupils who do not seem to be paying close attention. 



74 SPECIAL METHODS 

154 SIXTH YEAR LANGUAGE READER 

there lived, many } r ears since, while the country was yet 
a province of Great Britain, a simple, good natured fellow, 
of the name of Rip Van Winkle. He was a descendant 
of the Van Winkles who figured so gallantly in the chiv- 

5 alrous days of Peter Stuyvesant, and accompanied him to 
the siege of Fort Christina. He inherited , however, but 
little of the martial character of his ancestors. I have 
observed that he was a simple, good-natured man; he 
was, moreover, a kind neighbor and an obedient, hen- 

lo pecked husband. 

Certain it is that he was a great favorite among all the 
goodwives of the village, who took his part in all family 
squabbles ; and never failed, whenever they talked those 
matters over in their evening gossipings, to lay all the 

15 blame on Dame Van Winkle. The children of the vil- 
lage, too, would shout with joy whenever he approached. 
He assisted at their sports, made their playthings, taught 
them to fly kites and shoot marbles, and told them long 
stories of ghosts, witches, and Indians. Whenever he 

20 went dodging about the village, he was surrounded by a 

troop of them, hanging on his skirts, clambering on his 

back, and playing a thousand tricks on him ; and not a 

dog would bark at him throughout the neighborhood. 

The great error in Rip's composition was a strong dis- 

25 like of all kinds of profitable labor. It could not be from 
the want of perseverance ; for he would sit on a wet rock, 
with a rod as long and heavy as a lance, and fish all day 



Page from The Sixth Year Language Reader, by 
Franklin T. Baker, George R. Carpenter and Jennie F. 
Owens. 



READING 75 

Return repeatedly to pupils who miss or who do not pronounce 
correctly. Show the rhythm of phrase combinations by the fol- 
lowing device : 



throu<rV\ "the, "tlruoK 




tKtflJd 



In the story of Abraham Lincoln, (Work and Sorrow), select 
difficult words like: 

Abraham Lincoln Kentucky 

Spencer County Indiana 

plentiful seventy 



Print the following phrase forms: 
in the autumn 
in Indiana 

in the Indiana woods 
to the new 
through the thick woods 



to Spencer County 
for his family 
from the old home 
for themselves 



Other expressions might be printed on the board 
was eight years old 
their Kentucky home 
land could be bought 
it was a good many days 



In the story of the Little Match Girl, the subject-predicate 
combinations would be emphasised, thus : 
It was "terribly cold 
It was the last evening 
When she left home 
She certainly had slippers on 
They were very big slippers 
The little maid had lost them 
When two carriages came rattling by 
So now the little girl went on 
No one had bought anything of her all day 
The snowflakes fell on her long, yellow hair 



76 SPECIAL METHODS 

Difficult words would require more attention in Rip van 
Winkle, thus: 

prov ince de scend ant 

gal lant ly chiv al rous 

ac com pa nied Chris ti na 

char ac ter fa vor ite 

com po si tion prof it a ble 

per se ver ance Etc. 

Direct the pupils somewhat as follows : 

Look at this word. Look again. Pronounce it to yourself. 
Pronounce it for the class, Brown. Smith. Jones, etc. 
Look at your books. Look for the first three words. 
Pronounce them to yourselves. Look at the board. 
Pronounce it for the class. 
(Call rapidly on a number of individual pupils). 

3. Verbal meaning. Show how the author of a selection brings 
out the meaning of an idea by different expressions. Call attention 
to the different expressions which amplify the idea. Question as 
follows : 

How do we know that 'the wind blew hard?' 

What did the wind do? ('Shook the apple trees'). 

How do we know the wind shook the apple trees? ('The 

apples fell off'). 
Where were the apples ? ('On the ground') . 

In the lesson on the Three Piggy Wigs, the following expressions 
show that the wind blew hard : 

The wind blew hard. 

It shook the apple trees. 

The apples were shaken from the trees. 

The apples were on the ground. 

For the lesson on Abraham Lincoln, question as follows : 

Why did Lincoln's parents wish to move to Indiana? 
Why did the way seem long to them? 



KEADING 77 

These questions will bring out the following facts : 

It was not a year since Indiana became a State. 

Land could be bought very cheap. 

Lincoln thought he could make a good living. 

Game was plentiful. 

It was not more than seventy or eighty miles away. 

The way seemed far, because, 

The wagon was slow, 

There was no road, 

The movers had to cut a path themselves. 

The idea of cold is amplified in the Little Match Girl, by means 
of the following expressions : 

It was terribly cold. 

It snowed. 

The girl was in her bare feet. 

She had lost her slippers. 

Her little naked feet were quite red and blue with the cold. 

Shivering with cold and hunger she crept on. 

The snowflakes fell on her yellow hair. 

In Rip van Winkle, the idea of Rip's good nature is shown by 
the following expressions : 

He inherited little of the martial character of his ancestors. 
He was a simple, good-natured man. 
He was a kind neighbor. 
He was an obedient, hen-pecked husband. 
He was a great favorite. 

The children would shout with joy at his approach. 
He assisted at their sports, etc. 
He was surrounded by a troop of them, etc. 
The great error is his composition was a strong dislike of 
all kinds of profitable labor. 

In bringing out these different expressions, have pupils read 
the lesson line by line. If necessary have them stop and compare 
some of the expressions with the idea, thus : 

What made Rip a favorite? 

Why did the good wives take his part? 

Would they do that if he were not good natured? 

How did the children show that he was good natured ? 

How did Rip show his good nature when with children? 



78 SPECIAL METHODS 

Bring out the meaning of different words and phrases some- 
what as follows: 

''Game was plentiful." 

Are there plenty of pencils here? (Show a boxful). 

What else is plentiful in this room? 

Where are there plenty of apples? Of fish? Etc. 

' ' He was a descendant of the Rip van Winkle 's. ' ' 

He was the son of a Rip van Winkle. 

Who was his grandfather ? His great grandfather ? 

Whenever it is possible, write or print sentences on the board 
and indicate several expressions which may be used. Have the 
pupils substitute as they read, thus : 

^ came near 

Whenever he e^f" — approached 

.drew near 



aided\^ __ toys 

He xJJ— assisted— ; at their sports, made their c 
Mielped^ 



playthings 



At times have the pupil look at his book and read several sen- 
tences in his own words, thus : 

1 ' The great error in Rip 's composition was a strong dislike 

to all kinds of profitable labor." 
Rip did not like to work hard, or, 
Rip disliked to do any kind of work for money, or, 
One thing that Rip van Winkle disliked very much, and 

that was profitable labor. 

4. Silent reading and thought getting. In the first three or 
four school years direct the children constantly. Have the pupils 
use their books and question as follows : 

Where did the little piggy wigs live ? 

Where was the field? 

What was in the field? 

What did the little piggies see ? 

What did they do ? 

What did the little piggy wig say when he met the gnome? 

Now tell the whole storv. Look at the board as you tell it. 



READING 79 



House 
Field 
Apples 
Gnome 



Little piggy wig 
Middle piggy wi§ 
Big piggy wig 



For the lesson on the Little Match Girl, question somewhat as 
follows : 

How were the streets ? 

How was the little girl dressed? 

Why did she go out ? 

"What did she see? 

Now tell this part of the story. Keep these things in mind : 

Street 

Girl - 

Dress 

Work 

The house windows 

More formal direction should be given in the fourth, fifth, sixth, 
and higher years. For a narration, such as Rip van Winkle, write 
the following outline on the board : 

1. The time 

2. The background, neighborhood, place 

3. The people or characters 

4. The action, or what the characters do 

(a) Beginning of the action 

(b) Middle of the action 

(c) Conclusion 

Direct and question the pupils as follows : 

When did the story take place ? 

Read the part that tells the time. 

Where did the action take place ? 

Read the description of the place. 

Read the words which describe the same thing. 

Name the person or people in the story. 

What does the author say about them? 

What did he first do ? (Rip van Winkle) . 

Where did he go? 



80 SPECIAL METHODS 

Then what happened? 

Where did that happen ? 

Whom did he meet? 

What did they do? (The dwarfs). 

What did he do? 

For a description direct the pupils by an outline like the fol- 
lowing : 

1. Is the author standing still, or moving 

2. Where is the author placed 

(a) Outside 

(b) Inside 

(c) Over 

(d) Below 

(e) Indefinite 

3. Plan of the description 

(a) Whole to parts 

(b) Part to whole 

4. Method of description 

(a) Qualities set forth 

(b) Quantities given 

(c) Comparisons 

5. Expressions used for the same idea 

Question the pupils to bring out the above : 

Where is the author ? 

On what is he traveling ? 

How does he begin? With the whole scene, or with part 

of it? 
What part does he take up first? 
How does he show its size? 

An exposition would require some such outline as the following : 

1. Subject, of the lesson 

2. The parts of the object 

3. Its use. What good is it? 

4. How it is made, or, 
What it does 

5. Comparisons 



READING 81 

An argument would require : 

1. The statement 
1. Reasons Why? 

3. Appeals made 

4. Connection of appeals with the reasons 

Formal outlines like the above may be used with the higher 
grades, but should in every case by supplemented by definite ques- 
tions. Where the outlines would only confuse the children, as in the 
lower grades, keep them in mind as a guide to the questions asked. 
Thus, the formal outline of a narration would not be given to second 
year children, but it would guide such questions as : 

Where were the little piggy wigs ? 

What was between the house and the field ? 

Who lived under the bridge? 

Why were the three piggies afraid of the gnome? 

In the higher grades of the last four years, develop the topic 
sentence of the paragraph. Have the pupils read over silently one 
paragraph. Question as follows : 

Try to put the paragraph in one sentence. 

Does it tell about a person? A place? A thing? Action? 

Who is the person? Give only one sentence. 

What happened ? Tell it in one sentence, with the time. 

What object is described? Name its parts>in one sentence. 

The kind of question will depend upon the content of the para- 
graph. As different sentences are given, write them on the board. 
Write two or three for a single paragraph. Go over each of the 
paragraphs, one after the other. For Rip van Winkle would be 
given some sentences such as the following • 

1. Long ago, a good-natured man, called Rip van Winkle, 
lived in the country. 

Rip van Winkle lived in the country in the days of Peter 
Stuyvesant. 



82 SPECIAL METHODS 

2. He was a favorite with every one in the village. 
All the women and children in the village liked Rip. 
Rip van Winkle was popular with everyhody in the 

village. 

3. Rip never liked to work. 

Rip would help every body except his own family. 
Rip was a lazy body who did not like to work. 

It might be well to point out that the topic sentence is often 
found at the beginning or end of the paragraph. "Write the topic 
sentences on the board. Call on pupils to amplify these sentences, 
using their books if necessary. Direct them with questions if neces- 
sary. Thus : 

How do you know that Rip was good natured ? 

Give three more sentences to show that he was good natured. 

Why was Rip a favorite? 

What did he do ? What did the women do ? What did the 

children do ? Give three or four sentences to show why 

he was well liked. 

After discussion of the topic sentences, call on pupils to amplify 
a sentence, without help or prompting. Give time in which reference 
can be made to the book and the topic sentence mentally worked over. 
Then call on a pupil. Wait without saying a word and let him finish 
his version of the whole paragraph. Call on several pupils for the 
same topic sentence. 

5. Correlated language work. Look carefully through the 
lesson and arrange ellipses which are to be filled in by the pupils. 
The page on the Little Piggy Wigs will give the sentence : 

The pigs 



Write this on the board. Ask the pupils to look through the page 
and think of what the pigs did. Wait a short while. Then pass 
rapidly around the class. Let individual pupils finish the sentence. 
The answers will run somewhat as follows : 

The pigs awoke in the morning. 

The pigs looked out of the window. 

The pigs saw the red apples on the ground. 

The pigs said : ' ' We will go across the river. ' ' 

The pigs wanted to eat the little red apples. 



READING 83 

In a similar manner the sentence, 

Mr. Lincoln 

would yield expressions like : 

Mr. Lincoln left his Kentucky home. 

Mr. Lincoln moved to Indiana. 

Mr. Lincoln thought he could make a good living for his 

family. 
Mr. Lincoln had heard that game was plentiful. 
Mr. Lincoln bought some cheap land in Indiana. 

The sentence, 

The little match girl 



would probably be filled in as follows : 

The little match girl was walking through the streets. 

The little match girl had left her slippers home. 

The little match girl lost her slippers. 

The little match girl went on. 

The little match girl carried a number of matches. 

The little match girl was shivering with cold and hunger. 

The little match girl crept along. 

In the above sentences the predicate is supplied by the pupils 
from the lesson. In the following, the attribute is to be filled in : 

Rip van Winkle was 



Call upon pupils for such answers as : 

Rip van Winkle was a good-natured fellow. 

Rip van Winkle was a descendant of the Rip van Winkles. 

Rip van Winkle was a kind neighbor. 

Rip van Winkle was an obedient, henpecked husband. 

Rip van Winkle was a great favorite with the village 

housewives. 
Rip van Winkle was a playmate of the children. 

Look through several pages of the lesson and write the incom- 
pleted sentences upon the board. Call upon the pupils to finish the 



84 SPECIAL METHODS 

sentence. If possible let the ellipses be of the same nature, as, miss- 
ing predicates, missing attributes, missing clauses or phrases, etc., as, 

The pigs were afraid, because . 

When the little pig , he . 

The pigs said, " " 

He said that 

(The above sentences are based on the sample pages above, pages 

68, 70, 72, 74) . 

II. Appreciation 

1. Narration. Before taking up a selection in the classroom, 
let the pupils read it at home for the story and general interest. 
Then lead them to an appreciation of its story, structure, movement, 
and style. Take, for example, the story of Rip van "Winkle. Let the 
pupils read it at home. In the classroom, let the pupils silently read 
indicated portions as follows : 

Where is the scene laid? 

Read one or more sentences to indicate the locality. 
Point out the place which ends the first part of Rip's ad- 
venture. 

Show the general movement of the first half of the story as 
follows : 




READING 



85 



Let the pupils tell of the different incidents which lead to the 
beginning of Rip's long sleep. Have some of the pupils read parts 
of the story which bring out these incidents. Indicate the second 
half of the story by means of the following diagram : 




Deal with the different incidents as suggested in the following 
suggestions. Question the pupils as follows: 

What kind of a day was it when Rip awoke? 
How do you know he slept a long time? 
What people did he meet? 
What changes had taken place? 

Lead the pupils to appreciate the manner in which Rip's char- 
acter is set forth. Direct the class as follows : 

Read the paragraph containing the expression, 'a simple, 

good-natured fellow.' What expressions indicate this 

good nature? 
Read the paragraph beginning with 'Certain it is.' What 

expressions show that Rip was a favorite ? 
What expressions show that he did not like to work ? 
What did he like? Read the sentences which show this 

liking. 
How did Rip avoid the ' clamor of his wife ? ' 

Deal with the different descriptions and descriptive phrases in the 
the same manner. 



86 



SPECIAL METHODS 



In The Courtship of Miles Standish, deal with the poem by 
cantos, as indicated by the poet. Let the pupils read the poem at 
home. Then take up the different cantos in the classroom. Lead the 
pupils to compare Miles Standish with John Alden by means of the 
following outline: 

Miles Standish John Alden 

"What expressions describe the build of each ? 
"What were the captain's weapons? 
"What were Alden 's tools? 
"What thoughts filled the captain 's mind ? 
What was John Alden thinking of? 

Take up with the class the different expressions used to describe 
the warlike character of Miles Standish. Direct and question as 

follows : 

Name the weapons mentioned in the first section. 

How are they described? Their condition? 

"What books were in the room? 

Why did the captain think himself ready for the Indians?" 

In much the same way deal with the other sections of the poem. 
Let the pupils point out and read the expressions which set forth the 
appearance of Priscilla, the thoughts of John Alden, the action and 
reaction of Alden, of Standish, etc. Illustrate the movement of the 
story by means of the following diagram : 




READING 



S7 



Question the pupils, thus: 

What was the plan of Miles Standish ? 

What were his hopes'? What were Alden's hopes'? 

How can Alden's errand be considered the parting of the 

ways? 
How are the positions of Standish and Alden reversed after 

the refusal, 'Why don't you speak for yourself, -John ? ' 
How can the Indian fight be considered the parting of the 

ways in the second half of the poem ? 
How did Standish act after the refusal? Alden? 
Trace the story to the end. 

In the case of Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, trace the movement 
of the story by means of the following diagram : 



^^ 



t0<2 




Direct the pupils as follows : 

In the first scene, what expressions show a reaction against 

Caesar ? 
What special complaints does Cassius make? 
Who are the other conspirators? 
Why does Brutus hesitate? (II, i). 
What evil omens are seen ? 
What is the plan of the conspirators ? 



Show the pupils how the death of Caesar marks the highest 
point of the career of the conspirators, and how the result of the 
speeches marks the beginning of their fall. Let the pupils read parts 
of Antony's speech which appeal to the emotions. Let them read 
parts of the speech of Brutus which appeal to the reason. Trace 
the result. Have the pupils follow the rise of Octavius, and the 
death of the conspirators. 



88 SPECIAL METHODS 

After a selection has been studied in the manner indicated, let 
the pupils read about the life of the author, the times in which he 
lived, the conditions which led to the writing of the selection, and 
so on. Have them look up the geographical references, the correlated 
history, etc. If a more intensive study is desired, assign verses, 
sentences, stanzas, or paragraphs for study, and let the pupils select 
generic words, specific words, concrete words, abstract words, 'figures 
of speech, expressions worthy of imitation, and the like. In each 
case, however, first go over the selection as suggested, draw a diagram 
to illustrate the movement of the story, and read portions in the 
classroom. 

2. Description. In a description, place before the class the 
writer's position and point of view. Have the pupils read parts of 
the different aspects of the description. Let them read the different 
expressions which the author uses to bring out an idea, or to present 
a picture. Take for example, Whittier's Snowbound. Direct and 
question somewhat as follows: 

Where is the author ? 

What two scenes are contrasted? 

What takes place outside ? Read a few verses to show this. 

Name the different characters described in the poem. 

Read a few verses about each one. 

What are some of the expressions used to describe the 

father? 
The mother ? The uncle ? Aunt ? Sister ? Schoolmaster ? 

Let the pupils read some of the more expressive portions of the 
poem. Follow in general the outline suggested above, page 80. If 
passages in a selection are worth remembering, let the pupils mem- 
orise such passages. As in the case of narration, let the pupils read 
about the author and look up geographical, historical, or other 
references. 

HI. Memory Work 

Tell the story of the poem or selection. Make rapid blackboard 
sketches as you speak.- Write the names of the leading characters, 
scenes, etc., on the board. Tn outline, write the story on the board. 
Write a topic sentence for each section, stanza, or scene, etc. Bring 



READING 89 

into the story as you tell it or write it some of the more difficult 
expressions. Proceed just as you would in introducing a reading 
lesson. Follow the above directions. 

When the selection is to be memorised, proceed somewhat as 
follows : 

Read the piece to yourselves. Now read it stanza by stanza. 

Read over the first two or three verses (or sentences). 

Close eyes (or Books over). 

Try to repeat these lines. 

Look at the book once more. Go over the lines. 

Try to repeat the lines without looking at the book (or 

board) . 
Look at the next two lines. 
Now read to yourselves the whole four lines. 
Look at the first words. At the last words. 
Look again. Try to repeat the four lines. 
Who can come to the front of the room and say the four 

lines? 

Give no memory work till, (1) the meaning of the selection has 
been developed by story, blackboard illustration, and discussion; 

(2) the selection has been read and appreciated as a whole; and 

(3) the more difficult words and expressions have been written on 
the board, explained and illustrated. 



IV. Dramatisation 

Wherever possible, let the pupils dramatise the reading lesson. 
Assign parts. Direct and question as follows : 

Who wants to be the Little Piggy Wig ? 

Middling Piggy Wig? Big Piggy Wig? The Gnome? 

Now here is the bridge. There are the apples. 

What does Little Piggy Wig say ? 

What does the gnome say ? What does he do ? 

Show the class. Now, go ahead. 

Let the pupils refer to their books for expressions, or make up 
expressions of their own. Do not hold them to the words of the book. 
Call upon the class for possible expressions. After one group has 



90 SPECIAL METHODS 

acted out the piece, call upon one or more other groups 1o act r.ut 
the lesson. Take the best rendition, give sufficient drill, and let the 
pupils act at a morning assembly. 

In the story of Eip van Winkle, assign pupils to take the parts 
of Rip, his dog, his wife, the dwarfs, his daughter, and the crowd. 
Arrange the following situations, (1) Quarrel with his wife, ramble, 
and sleep ; (2) Awakening, return, and recognition. Let the pupils 
work out as much of the dramatisation as possible. Take the ex- 
pressions which they submit. Rearrange and refine them if neces- 
sary. In arranging a dramatisation, prepare the situations, actions, 
etc., and then fit the words to them. Do not have too much talk. 



CHAPTER V 

PHONICS — VISUAL 

Give drills in phonics in every class and even in the classes of 
the high school. Give special drills on sounds which are notoriously 
mangled, as, th, t, r, ing, and v. In the following, the visual aids 
will he considered : 

II. The Sound th. 

Illustrate the position of the lips, tongue and teeth by the fol- 
lowing sketch : 




Direct the pupils as follows : 

Put out the tongue. Further. Look at the picture. Look 

at me. 
Keep the tongue out. 
Take a deep breath. Hold the breath. 
Sound th. Keep on sounding th. 

Write some words on the board, with the th emphasized as 
follows : 



th 



rus 



91 



92 SPECIAL METHODS 

Have words pronounced on separate sounds, thus 



usK 



and have the same words analysed, thus : 



t Virus k 

VSk 



Use words from the following : 



Initial th, 


hard 






thane 


thing 


thrice 


thrush 


thank 


think 


thrift 


thrust 


thatch 


third 


thrill 


thud 


thaw 


thirst 


thrive 


thug 


theft 


thong 


throat 


thumb 


theme 


thorn 


throb 


thump 


thews 


thought 


throe 


thwack 


thick 


thrall 


throne 


thwart 


thief 


thrash 


through 


theater 


thigh 


thread 


throve 


thimble 


thill 


threat 


throw 


thistle 


thin 


three 


thrum 


thunder 





] 


PHONICS 




Initial th, soft 








than 


them 


they 


thou 


that 


then 


these 


though 


the 


thence 


thine 


thus 


their 


there 


this 


those 


Final th, hard 








bath 


earth 


teeth 


oath 


hath 


dearth 


wreath 


growth 


path 


froth 


depth 


youth 


lath 


moth 


breath 


tooth 


wrath 


cloth 


breadth 


truth 


pith 


north 


death 


sooth 


with 


fourth 


length 


loth 


filth 


wroth 


strength 


quoth 


smith 


heath 


month 


sloth 


faith 


neath 


sonth 


health 


firth 


sheath 


both 


stealth 


mirth 








Final th, soft 








breathe 


bathe 


lithe 


with 


seethe 


scathe 


blithe 


sith 


sheathe 


swathe 


writhe 


loathe 


wreathe 


lathe 


soothe 


smooth 


Middle th 








bather 


leather 


mother 


smoothly 


father 


tether 


another 


toothsome 


gather 


weather 


smother 


wither 


lather 


either 


author 


whither 


rather 


neither 


bother 


thither 


feather 


other 


worthy 


together 


heather 


brother 







93 



The following incompleted sentences may be used 
After the 



After the rain we went 

After the show we saw 

After the Revolutionary "War 



94 SPECIAL METHODS 



After this had happened 



He threw a stone after the 
They all ran after the 



Along the 

Along the shore we saw 

He drove his — along the road. 

She threw the along the road. 

They ran for three miles along the 



At the 

At the door stood 

At the sight of the wounded men we — 

At the window sat 

At the entrance of the gate we caught 

At last the 

He shot at the 



She threw a stick at the 

Right at the they stood. 

Before the 

Before the king stood 

Before the battle every man 

Each pupil had to before the class. 

No one came before the 

No one dared to go before the 



Beneath the 

Beneath the cover peeped out a 
Beneath the cliff we saw 



He threw his beneath the — 

Beneath the we saw a large 

Beside the 

Beside the three books lay a 



Besides these presents I received ■ — 

He threw down his — — beside the 

Between the 

Between the trees we saw 



Between the dark and the daylight there came 



PHONICS 95 



By the 

By the sea we saw a strange 
By night the moon 



By the end of the month we should 
We crossed by means of the 



By means of the we succeeded in 



Down the 

Down the lane there came 

Down the side of the mountain we saw 
We saw no one go down the 



There they stood looking down the 



During the 

During the night we heard 

During the month they caught 
During the war there were no - 



For the 

For the present we shall 

For the first time we saw ' 

They received the for the asking. 

For that matter I don't care if 

He received for the 



From the 

From the forest there came 
From their seats they saw 



They plucked many from the 



In the 

In the sky there flew 

In the palace of the king there once lived 

There was not a in the room. 

In the party was a 



He was kept in the house until 

They caught many in the 

In three minutes we 

In the distance were seen 



They found their in the 



96 SPECIAL METHODS 



Into the 

Will you come into the parlor to 
They ran quickly into the 



They threw their into the 

Near the 

Near the door there was 



For three minutes they waited near the 

They threw their near the thick thickets. 

On the 

On the window we saw a ■ 



On the lawn a little ran and played. 

The next number on the program is 

He threw his on the 

On this paper write 

On the coast of can be seen 



On the night of the of we heard 

On account of the storm we 

They saw a spot on the 

On the whole we have no complaint against the 



Out of the 

Out of the sea they pulled 

Out of the given to us we made 

Out of the three dozen eggs 

He took a out of the 



Over the 

We saw three running over the road. 

Over three thousand years ago this continent — 
They threw their over the 



Past the 

They ran past the 

Through the 

Through the thick thicket there came three 

They threw their through the thick thickets. 

Through the open door we saw 

Through the flames there rushed 



PHONICS 97 



Through the long night not a 

We hurried through the quiet street to 

We saw three thirsty thrushes fly through the 
Throughout the day no one 

To the 

The fell to the ground. 

At last they came to the 

No one said a word to the 

Please give to the 

They went to the 

Under the 

Under the table there lay 

We ran to get under the - 
They hid under the 



They threw their under the 

With the 

We went with the 

I left my with the 

Take some with the 



With these few words I now 

With the he caught many 

The three hunters came with their 



Write from six to ten of the sentences on the board. Call on 
pupils to fill them in. Insist on proper pronunciation of the ih. 

Make note of selections in verse and prose which have in them 
words with th, etc. The following are illustrations : 

Our little systems have their day, 

They have their day and cease to be; 

They are but broken lights of thee, 
And thou, Lord, are more than they. 

Tennyson 

Then downwards from the steep hill's edge 
They tracked the footmarks small; 
And through the broken hawthorn hedge, 
And by the long stone-wall ; 

And then an open field they crossed : 
The marks were still the same ; 
They tracked them on, nor ever lost ; 
And to the bridge they came. 

Wordsworth 



98 SPECIAL METHODS 

Full fathom five thy father lies : 
Of his bones are coral made ; 

These are pearls that were his eyes; 
Nothing of him that doth fade 

But doth suffer a sea change 

Into something rich and strange. 

Shakespeare 



"Your are old," said the youth, "and your jaws are too weak 

For anything tougher than suet ; 
Yet you finished the goose, with the bones and the beak — 

Pray, how did you manage to do it?" 

' ' In my youth, ' ' said his father, ' ' I took to the law, 

And argued each case with my wife ; 
And the muscular strength which it gave to my jaw. 

Has lasted the rest of my life. ' ' 

Lewis Carroll 

When these men had thus bravely showed themselves 
against Doubting Castle, and had slain Giant Despair, they 
went forward, and went on till they came to the Delectable 
Mountains, where Christian and Hopeful refreshed them- 
selves with the varieties of the place. They also acquainted 
themselves with the shepherds there, who welcomed them 
as they had done Christian before, unto the Delectable 
Mountains. John Bunyan 

The Three Thirsty Thrushes 

Once upon a time three thirsty thrushes were lost in a 
thick thicket. For a long time did these three thirsty 
thrushes wander through the thicket, looking for water. 
The three thirsty thrushes came to a pool but could not 
reach the water. "Ah," said one of the thirsty thrushes, 
"if only we had thin thistles through which we could 
drink." "But," said a second of the thrushes, "we need 
thin thimbles in which to carry the water." So the three 
thirsty thrushes looked through the thick thicket for three 
thin thistles and three thin thimbles. They soon found 
three thistles and three thimbles. . So the three thirsty 
thrushes took the three thin thimbles, filled them with 
water and sucked it up through the thin thistles. Then the 
three thrushes, no longer thirsty, found their way out of 
the thick thicket. 



PHONICS 99 

II. The Sound t 

Illustrate the position of the tongue and teeth by means of a 
•chart or blackboard drawing like the following : 




Direct the pupils as follows: 

Press the tongue against the top of the mouth, back of the 

teeth. 
Press harder. Take a deep breath. 
Sound - { te.' Again. 
Sound -'net.' Repeat the 't' sound, 'net-t.' Again, 'nct-t.' 

Give drills from the following words : 

(1) bat, cat, fat, hat, mat, pat, rat, sat, tat, vat, brat, chat, flat, 
spat, sprat, that 

(2) bate, date, fate, gate, hate, late, mate, pate, crate, prate, rate, 
sate, slate, bait, gait, strait, wait, eight, straight 

(3) bet, get, jet, let, met, net, set, wet, yet, debt, fret, sweat, threat 

(4) beet, feet, meet, fleet, greet, sheet, sleet, street, sweet, eat, feat, 
bleat, cheat, heat, meat, neat, seat, treat, wheat, mete 

(5) bit, cist, fit, hit, pit, sit, wit, flit, grit, knit, quit, split, twit, 
writ, whit 

(6) bite, cite, kite, mite, rite, smite, spite, sprite, trite, white, 
write, blight, bright, dight, fight, flight, light, night, plight, 
right, sight, slight, tight, fright . 

(7) cot, got, hot, jot, lot, not, pot, rot, sot, blot, clot, grot, knot, 
plot, spot, shot 

(8) cot, dote, lote, mote, note, rote, tote, vote, wrote, quote, boat, 
coat, float, goat, gloat, groat, moat, throat shoat 

(9) but, cut, gut, hut, jut, nut, rut, glut, shut, slut, smut, strut 



100 SPECIAL METHODS 

(10) bute, cute, lute, flute, mute, brute, fruit, suit, newt 

(11) aft, craft, daft, draft, draught, graft, haft, raft, shaft, waft 

(12) cleft, left, theft, weft 

(13) drift, gift, lift, rift, shift, shrift, sift, thrift 

(14) oft, croft, soft, loft 

(15) halt, malt, salt, fault, vault 

(16) belt, felt, melt, pelt, smelt, welt, dealt 

(17) gilt, hilt, jilt, milt, guilt, quilt, built, spilt, tilt, stilt 

(18) bolt, colt, dolt, holt, moult 

(19) ant, cant, chant, grant, pant, plaut, rant, slant, aunt 

(20) bent, blent, brent, lent, pent, rent, sent, scent, spent, tent, 
vent, went, meant 

(21) dint, flint, hint, lint, mint, print, tint, quint, squint 

(22) front, blunt, brunt, grunt, hunt, runt, don't, won't 

(23) art, cart, dart, hart, mart, part, smart, start, tart 

(24) dirt, flirt, shirt, skirt, squirt, pert, vert 

(25) fort, mort, port, short, snort, sort, tort, court, wart 

(26) curt, hurt, blurt, spurt 

(27) blast, cast, fast, mast, last, past, vast 

(28) best, blest, chest, crest, jest, lest, nest, pest, rest, test, vest, 
west, breast, guest, quest 

(29) fist, list, mist, twist, whist, wrist 

(30) cost, frost, lost 

(31) bust, crust, dust, just, lust, must, rust, trust, thrust 

(32) baste, chaste, haste, paste, taste, waste, waist 

(33) beast, east, feast, least, priest 

(34) bought, brought, fought, nought, ought, sought, thought, 
wrought, aught, caught, fraught, naught, taught 

(35) count, fount, mount 

(36) bout, clout, doubt, drought, gout, grout, out, pout, rout, scout, 
shout, spout, sprout, stout, trout 

(37) burst, curst, durst, worst, first, thirst 



PHONICS 101 

Collect verses similar to the following: 

What does little birdie say 
In her nest at peep of day? 
Let me fly, says little birdie, 
Mother, let me fly away. 

'Summer is coming, summer is coming, 

I know it, I know it, I know it. 
Light again, leaf again, life again, love again,' 

Yes, my blind little Poet. 

Late, late, so late! and dark the night and chill! 
Late, late, so late ! but we can enter still. 
Too late, too late ! ye cannot enter now. 



No light : so late ! and dark and chill the night 
let us in, that we may find the light ! 
Too late, too late : ye cannot enter now. 



Tennyson 



Construct easy rhymes like the following: 

Pit-a-pat, comes the cat, sleek and fat. 
Tit, tat, tat, runs the rat, from the cat. 

Trot, trot, trot, 

Through the street, in the hail and the sleet, 

Comes the horse with iron feet. 

Hot, hot, hot, piping hot, 
Is the roast in the pot. 

I lent a cent to Tommy Brent 

And when I went to get it, 

Young Tommy Brent had spent the cent, 

And so I couldn't get it. 

Use incompleted sentences like the following : 
It is not easy to 



It was his duty to 

I want to get 

I want to go to 

Let me see 



Let me wait at the . 

Let me get that for you. 



102 SPECIAL METHODS 



Let rue sit here and look at the 
Go away, and let me write my 

Last night we went to 

Last night I . 

Last week we . 



It rained so hard last week that we 

Get that for me. 

Please go and get that — 

Wait at that house till 



That is not the which I want. 

"What is that doing here? 

What are the doing in this room? 

That is not the which I bought. 

III. The Sound r 
Show the position of the tongue by the following drawing 



js." •*' 




Print the letter r on the board as follows, alone, and with b. 

T — rr — trr 
\>t -Wr — V>rrr 

Have pupils sound the r, and keep on sounding it. Drill them 
on words from the following series : 

Final r 
(1) are, bar, char, car, far, jar, mar, par, scar, spar, star, tar, 
afar, cellar, cigar, collar, friar, guitar, liar, mortar, nectar, 
calendar, popular, regular, singular, vinegar, particular, 
perpendicular 




PHONICS 103 

(2) barber, blister, brother, caper, cipher, cloister, clover, codger, 
cruiser, dapper, daughter, differ, foster, ginger, hunger, 
lawyer, leather, ledger, lubber, pepper, pilfer, plunger, 
robber, rover, scatter, simper, singer, sinner, sister, skipper, 
smatter, steamer, summer," temper, trapper, trooper, whisper, 
cylinder, foreigner, mariner, passenger, minister, prisoner, 
traveler, sir, stir, whirr 

' (3) for, abhor, anchor, author, doctor, donor, flavor, horror, 
honor, labor, mirror, motor, parlor, prior, sailor, sculptor, 
suitor, tailor, tenor, traitor, tutor, vendor, victor, ancestor, 
auditor, conqueror, creator, creditor, emperor, governor, 
orator, senator, warrior, boar, bore, core, door, floor, four, 
gore, lore, more, pore, pour, roar, score, shore, soar, sore, 
store, swore, tore, wore, adore, ashore, deplore, explore, 
implore, restore, heretofore, blur, purr, cur, spur, slur 

Middle r 

(1) barb, garb, rhubarb, farce, parse, sparse, arch, larch, march, 
parch, starch, bard, card, guard, hard, lard, pard, shard, 
sward, ward, yard, blizzard, bombard, custard, dastard, 
dotard, drunkard, leopard, niggard, regard, barge, charge,, 
large, marge, discharge, enlarge, surcharge, arc, ark, bark,. 
dark, lark, mark, park, shark, spark, stark, embark, carl, 
gnarl, marl, snarlarm, bard, charm, farm, harm, alarm, 
disarm, barn, darn, tarn, yarn, carp, harp sharp carve, starve- 

(2) church, lurch, perch, search, smirch, research, bird, heard, 
sherd, scurf, surf, turf, dirge, merge, purge, scourge, serge„ 
urge, verge, diverge, emerge, firm, term, worm, affirm, 
confirm, burn, churn, earn, fern, kern, learn, spurn, stern, 
term, turn, urn, yearn, concern, discern, return, overturn, 
curse, hearse, nurse, purse, terse, verse, worse, accurse, 
adverse, averse, converse, commerce, disperse, immerse, 
perverse, rehearse, reverse, traverse, curve, nerve, serve, 
swerve, conserve, observe, preserve, reserve, subserve 

(3) dire, fire, hire, ire, mire, sire, spire, squire, tire, wire, acquire, 
attire, conspire, desire, entire, expire, inspire, require, retire, 
transpire, dirk, kirk, lurk, murk, perk, smirk, stirk, work, 
firm, term, worm, affirm, confirm, infirm 

(4) porch, scorch, torch, board, cord, ford, hoard, horde, lord, 
sword, aboard, accord, afford, record, forge, gorge, cork, fork, 
pork, stork, form, storm, perform, inform, reform, coarse, 
course, force, horse 



104 



SPECIAL METHODS 



(5) bird, curb, curd, herb, gird, verb, word, absurd, disturb, 
suburb, scurf, serf, surf, turf, churl, curl, earl, furl, girl, 
hurl, pearl, twirl, chirp, usurp, pure, allure, assure, endure, 
immure, mature, obscure, procure, secure, overture, sinecure 



Final ary 








boundary 


primary 


dictionary 


secretary 


vagary 


summary 


library 


military 


beggary 


customary 


literary 


solitary 


judiciary 


canary 


honorary 


parliamentary 


diary 


mercenary 


temorary 


elementary 


auxiliary 


ordinary 


arbitrary 


momentary 


pecuniary 


imaginary 


contrary 


voluntary 


salary 


culinary 


dispensary 


tributary 


burglary 


luminary 


adversary 


January 


similarly 


, visionary 


anniversary 


February 


vocabulary 


missionary 


necessary 


estuary 


insularly 


stationary 






Final ery 








robbery 


leathery 


trumpery 


very 


bribery 


fiery 


slippery 


slavery 


grocery 


mockery 


frippery 


bravery 


embroidery 


nickery 


coppery 


every 


housewifery 


cookery 


misery 


thievery 


imagery 


rookery 


nursery 


revery 


savagery 


celery 


watery 


livery 


drudgery 


gallery 


effrontery 


delivery 


forgery 


emery 


artery 


recovery 


surgery 


machinery 


mastery 


discovery 


treachery 


joinery 


monastery 


Bowery 


witchery 


millinery 


mystery 


showery 


butchery 


gunnery 


flattery 


flowery 


fishery 


drapery 


lottery 







PHONICS 




Final ory 








gory 


commendatory 


inflammatory 


directory 


allegory 


mandatory 


declaratory 


prohibitory 


glory 


prefatory 


preparatory 


auditory 


pillory 


obligatory 


oratory 


dormitory 


memory 


interrogatory 


laboratory 


punitory 


armory 


purgatory 


observatory 


territory 


compulsory 


nugatory 


factory 


transitory 


sensory 


conciliatory 


olfactory 


repository 


cursory 


expiatory 


satisfactory 


desultory 


accessor 


dilatory 


unsatisfactory 


inventory 


promisory 


propitiatory 


refractory 


story 


delusory 


circulatory 


directory 


history 


illusory 


congratulatory 


contradictory 


savory 


Tory 
predatory 


declamatory 
exclamatory 


victory 


ivory 



105 



Selections with words containing r are easy to get. For ex- 
ample, stanzas taken anywhere from Gray's Elegy "Written in a 
Country Churchyard are suitable for the purpose: 

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, 

The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 

For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn, 
Or busy housewife ply her evening care : 

No children run to lisp their sire's return, 
Or climb his knee the envied kiss to share. 

The opening lines to Kubla Khan are good : 

In Xanadu did Kubla Khan 
A stately pleasure-dome decree; 
"Where Alph, the sacred river, ran 
Through caverns measureless to man 
Down to a sunless sea. 



Select similar passages from standard authors and from the 
reading of the grade. Write the passage on the board and have it 
carefully read, and, if necessary, pronounced word by word. 



106 



SPECIAL METHODS 



IV. The Sound ing 



By means of the following drawing illustrate the formation of 
the sound : 




Have pupils sound ing, and continue the sound. Write letteri 
on the hoard to show this continuance, thus : 



Use words from the following lists 



facing 


exceeding 


foreboding 


catching 


piercing 


bleeding 


according 


watching 


leading 


breeding 


being 


fishing 


pleading 


abiding 


seeing 


breathing 


reading 


riding 


stuffing 


something 


lading 


building 


stuffings 


clothing 


trading 


scaffolding 


edging 


nothing 


padding 


holding 


lodging 


farthing 


wadding 


landing 


rigging 


plaything 


bedding 


standing 


obliging 


speaking 


bidding 


understanding 


hanging 


taking 


forbidding 


pending 


swinging 


ticking 


pudding 


binding 


longing 


rocking 


preceding 


winding 


diverging 


cooking 


proceeding 


sounding 


converging 


stocking 





PHONICS 


1 


stockings 


sapling 


lightning 


waiting 


liking 


stripling 


awning 


biting 


striking 


darling 


yawning 


writing- 


dealing 


yearling 


housekeeping 


slanting 


dealings 


starling 


bookkeeping 


relenting 


healing 


sterling 


strapping 


fainting 


circling 


gosling 


shipping 


bunting 


peddling 


housing 


dripping 


footing 


seedling 


bantling 


tripping 


excepting 


middling 


nestling 


daring 


diverting 


worldling 


seeming 


hearing 


everlasting 


foundling 


trimming 


seafaring 


coasting 


groundling 


trimmings 


wayfaring 


wasting 


lordling 


becoming 


glaring- 


befitting 


feeling 


forthcoming 


sparing 


flitting 


feelings 


charming 


wandering 


sitting 


unfeeling 


alarming- 


offering 


cutting 


hireling 


assuming 


suffering 


leaving ' 


trifling 


meaning 


gathering 


leavings 


ailing 


opening 


entering 


saving 


prevailing 


evening 


covering 


forgiving 


wailing 


designing 


flooring- 


Thanksgiving 


ceiling 


lining 


mooring 


living 


tiling 


pining 


springing 


moving 


weakling 


winning 


earring 


carving 


tackling 


cunning 


herring 


starving 


duckling 


reckoning 


during 


serving 


inkling 


reasoning 


coloring 


observing 


suckling 


seasoning 


surprising 


drawing 


sprinkling 


learning 


blessing 


knowing 


twinkling 


warning 


dressing 


flowing 


compelling 


concerning 


fleeting 


saying 


dwelling 


morning 


meeting 


lying 


swelling 


mourning 


greeting 


amazing 


willing 


turning 


fighting 


gazing 


Use incompleted sentences of the following type : 




I am goir 
I am not 


,, 






ig to go to tiie 
going 







107 



108 SPECIAL METHODS 



We thought of going to the 
We are planning to 



We heard some one singing in the . 

While we were in we heard a canary singing. 

Singing a song, the maiden went to the . 

Singing some English songs, the travelers . 

He was not thinking of anything when . 

As he was wringing wet, we . 

Flinging his book to the ground, he . 

As the ship was sinking, they - — . 

He was not strong enough to 



and 



Sampson was so strong that he . 

Stringing his violin with some strong strings, he sang 



During the evening we saw many people going to • 

Marching along through a drizzling rain, the soldiers . 

Whistling, singing, jumping, running, skylarking, there came a 
band of 

Running through the burning building, he carried a flam- 
ing 



Stopping at an English tavern, we . 

Write on the board selections like the following : 

Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing, 
Onward through life he goes ; 

Each morning sees some task begun, 
Each evening sees it close ; 

Something attempted, something done, 
Has earned a night's repose. 

H. W. Longfellow 

what are you waiting for here, young man? 
What are you looking for over the bridge? 
"A little straw hat with the streaming blue ribbons 
Is soon to come dancing over the bridge. ' ' 

James Thomson 

True worth is in being, not seeming, 
In doing each day that goes by 

Some little good, not in dreaming 
Of great things to do by and by. 

A brushing fox in yonder wood. 
Secure to find we seek; 
For why, I carried, sound and good, 
A cartload there last week. 



PHONICS 109 



And a hunting we will go, 
A hunting we will go, 
A hunting we will go, 
A hunting we will go. 

At length his strength to faintness worn, 

Poor Reynard ceases flight; 

Then hungry, homeward, we return, 

To feast away the night. 

Then a drinking we will go, 

A drinking we will go, 

A drinking we will go, 

A drinking we will go. 

Old English Song 

Presently my soul grew stronger ; hesitating then no longer, 
' ' Sir, ' ' said I, "or Madam, truly your forgiveness I implore ; 
But the fact is I was napping, and so gently you came rapping, 
And so faintly you came tapping, tapping at my chamber door, 
That I scarce was sure I heard you" — here I opened wide the door; — 
Darkness there and nothing more. 

Deep into that darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, 

fearing, 
Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortal ever dared to dream before; 
But the silence was unbroken, and the stillness gave no token, 
And the only word there spoken was the whispered word, "Lenore !" 
This I whispered, and an echo murmured back the word, ' ' Lenore ! ' ' 
Merely this and nothing more. 

E. A. Poe 

V. The Sound v 
Illustrate the formation of the sound by the following diagram : 




110 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Use words from the following lists 



vacant 


vaudeville 


verdure 


Victoria 


vacancy 


vault 


verge 


victorious 


vacation 


vaunt 


verily 


victory 


vaccinate 


veal 


vermiform 


vie 


vacuous 


vector 


vermilion 


view 


vacuum 


veer 


vermin 


vigil 


vagabond 


vegetable 


vernal 


vigilant 


vagary- 


vegetate 


verse 


vigilance 


vagrant 


vehement 


version 


vigor 


vagrancy 


vehicle 


versus 


vigorous 


vague 


veil 


vertebra 


viking 


vail 


vein 


vertebrate 


vile 


vain 


vale 


vertex 


vilify 


valentine 


velocity 


vertical 


villa 


valet 


velum 


vertigo 


village 


valiant 


velure 


very 


villager 


valid 


velvet 


vesper 


villain 


valley 


vend 


vessel 


villainous 


valor 


vendor 


vested 


vindicate 


valuable 


veneer 


vestige 


vindication 


value . 


venerable 


vestry 


vindictive 


valve 


venerate 


vesture 


vine 


vamp 


veneration 


veteran 


vinegar 


van 


vengeance 


veto 


vineyard 


A^andal 


venison 


vexation 


vintage 


vane 


venom 


viaduct 


viol 


vanilla 


venomous 


vial 


violate 


vanish 


venous 


viand 


violent 


vanity 


vent 


vibrate 


violence 


vanquish 


ventilate 


vicar 


violet 


vantage 


ventral 


vacarious 


violin 


vapid 


venture 


vice 


viper 


vase 


veranda 


vichy 


virgin 


vassal 


verbal 


vicinity 


virile 


vast 


verbose 


vicious 


virility 


vastly 


verdant 


victim 


virtue 


vat 


verdict 


victor 


virtuous 



virus 
visage 
vise 
visible 
vision 
Adsionary 
visit 
visiting 
visitor 
vista 
visual 
vital 
vitality- 
vitals 





PHONICS 




vitreous 


vokible 


vow 


vitriol 


volume 


vowel 


vivacious 


voluntary 


voyage 


vocation 


volunteer 


va in- 


vociferous 


vomit 


variable 


vogue 


voracious 


variety 


voice 


vortex 


various 


void 


votary 


varnish 


volatile 


votary 


vulcanite 


volcano 


vote 


vulgar 


volition 


voter 


vulgarity 


volley 


vouch 


vulnerable 


volt 


voucher 


vulture 



111 



Write incompleted sentences on the board. Have the pupils 
complete a sentence in their own words and read it when called 
upon. Use sentences like the following: 

Everybody should visit . 



Everybody should be able to 

There are very few 

There were very many 

Some very large 

It is very easy to 



in the room. 
— in the village. 



-were seen in the city. 



It is not very easy to- 
Very few people can - 
Please give me 



The leading virtues are . 

The village school was a place where very many 

The most common A r egetables are . 

We made very few visits because . 

He took a valuable vase and 

In a velvety voice she said: " .'"' 

The victorious soldiers entered the village and 
Viewed from the village, the vessel seemed to 



The violence at the polls kept very many voters from 

The Vikings were a vigorous people who . 

Vesuvius is a volcano which . 



112 SPECIAL METHODS 



Keep track of selections like the following 



Vanity of vanities, all is vanity; all is vanity and 
vexation of spirit. 



'Fresh green vine-leaves hath the vineyard, — 
Grapes I found there ripe and sweet: 

"With these vines I will not meddle, 

Though they tell me — ' ' Come and eat. ' ' 



Toll for the Brave! 

The Brave that are no more : 
All sunk beneath the wave 

Fast by their native shore ! 

Eight hundred of the Brave, 
Whose courage well was tried, 

Had made the vessel keel 
And laid her on her side. 
W. Cowper 

Promise and keep your vows, 

Or vow you never ! 
Love's doctrine disallows 

Troth-breakers ever. 

James Shirley 

Happy, happy, happy pair ! 

None but the brave, 

None but the brave, 
None but the brave deserves the fair 

John Dry den 



Just for a handful of silver he left us, 

Just for a riband to stick in his coat — 
Found the one gift of which fortune bereft us, 

Lost all the others, she lets us devote ; 
They, with the gold to give, doled him out silver, 

So much was theirs who so little allowed: 
How all our copper had gone for his service! 

Rag — were they purple, his heart had been proud! 

Robert Browning 



PHONICS 



113 



VI. Correlated Phonics 

Use exercises like those above suggested to correct mispronun- 
ciation of the t, tli, r, ing and v in common discourse. In addition 
give exercises which lead directly to the reading lessons proper. In 
this case base the phonics on the words in the lesson. From the 
page on the Three Piggy Wigs arrange lists of phonic drills like 
the following: 



1 ight 

f 

t 

s 

r 

fl 

br 

fr — 



bl 

f 
n 
d 
h 



P 
fl 



ew 



sh ook 

b 

c 

h 

1 

n 

r 

t 



gr ound 

b 

f 

h 



m 

P 
r 

s 



Make charts with the words printed in letters about two inches in 
height. In addition use six by nine cardboard with movable parts 
about two or three inches wide. Arrange the device as follows : 




Hold up this card device before the class and call upon a number 
of pupils to pronounce the sounds indicated. Turn over the movable 
part and repeat. 

In arithmetic show by means of cards or blackboard the follow- 
ing combinations : 

3, 33, 333, 3333, 23, 43, 53, 63, 73, 83, 93, 103, etc. 

3rds, 4ths, 5ths, 6ths, 7ths, 8ths, 9ths, etc. 

20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 21, 22, etc. 

2nd, 22nd, 32nd, 42nd, 52nd, 62d, 72d, etc., etc. 



114 SPECIAL METHODS 

To correct mispronunciation of 'twelve' arrange the following list: 

ell, bell, dell, fell, knell, pell, sell, tell, well, twell, twelve 

After the pupils can read, arrange the letters in alphabetical 
order. Give the series of capital letters in a row, and under them 
the small letters. Ask pupils to try each of the letters with a given 
sound, as, 'ell,' 'all,' 'and,' etc. 



CHAPTER VI 
SPELLING AND DICTATION— VISUAL 

I. Spelling 

1. Selection of words. Select from fifty to seventy percent, of 
the spelling words from the reading, literature and memory work 
of the grade. Take the rest from the words usually misspelled, as, 
receive, truly, sincerely, forty, ninety, respectfully, accommodate, 
recommend, etc., from words incorrectly spelled in dictation and 
composition work, and from the more common expressions used in 
history, geography, arithmetic, grammar,*nature study, science, and 
drawing. Take from 10 to 30 of such words and dictate them 
rapidly to the class, without preliminary development or study. 
Eliminate the words which almost all the pupils spell correctly. 
Incorporate the rest in your spelling list. 

2. Development of meaning. Write upon the blackboard the 
words to be explained. Give from 2 to 5 to grades in the first four 
school years, and from 5 to 10 to grades in the last four school years. 
In developing the meaning of the words, follow the directions in the 
order given. Use as many as seem necessary to make the meaning 
of the words clear. 

(a) Show the actual object or reproduce the situation, action, 
quality or relation as closely as possible directly before the children. 

(&) Sketch a picture or scene on the board corresponding to the 
word or phrase. 

(c) Use the word in its original content, and write the word in 
several good, type, sentences. 

(d) Substitute synonymous words and write them over the word 
as it appears in-the content or type sentence. 

(e) Analvse the word into its parts, as, stem, suffix and prefix. 
Do this for grades only in the last four school years. 

(/) Let the pupils look up the word in the dictionary. 

All of these visual appeals may not be needed. Oftentimes all of 
them are not possible, as, in words like truly, grammar, etc. Try as 
many of the appeals as possible. 

115 



116 SPECIAL METHODS 

To illustrate the above directions for the lower grades take the 
following examples: 

trotting 
laugh 
thorn 
tired 

Read the sentences in the reader in which these words occur. 
Let the pupils point to these words in their readers. Show by pan- 
tomime what the words mean. Let a pupil walk, run, and trot. 
Direct him as follows : 

Not so fast. Lift your feet higher. 

That is how to trot. 

Who else can go trotting around the room? 

Let the pupils laugh. Show them what the opposite is, 'cry.' For 
'thorn' show a real thorn, or draw a picture of one. Go through 
expressions and movements which show that you are tired. Ask 
the pupils to show a tired feeling. Let them tell what makes them 
tired. 

In the higher grades make more use of content and verbal 
meaning. Take for illustration the following words : 

reference 
demonstration 
anxiety 
disengage 

Read the sentence or sentences in the reader in which these words 
occur, and write the expressions on the board, thus : 

17. reference (7) reference to 

with reference to 
no reference to 

18. demonstration (7) 

19. anxiety (8) feel anxiety for 

show anxiety for 
: anxiety about 

20. disengage (8) disengage himself from 



SPELLING 117 

(The first figures, 17, 18, etc., indicate the order of the words 
in the list. The second figures in parenthesis, (7) and (S) indicate 
the page in the reader in which the word is found. Type sentences 
are here not necessary as the pupil has the book before him in 
which the word, is used). 

Give a pantomime demonstration, e. g., in science, bodies fall, 
in arithmetic, 2 ~ .50, 9X2, etc. Show anxiety about a friend, or 
relative on board a train reported to be wrecked. Wrinkle the fore- 
head, show care, etc. Let one pupil hold another pupil by the arm. 
Let the one pull away. Give a pantomine yourself to show the 
meaning of disengage. 

Break the words into stem words, prefixes and suffixes. Write 
other stem words beneath each word as follows : 



re 


fer ence 




pre 


fer ence 




con 


fer ence 




cle 


monstra Hon 
monster 






(to be pointed 


at) 


re 


monstra Hon 




anxiety 
anxious 




dis 

dis 
dis 

dis 


engage 

engage 

miss 

turb 

order 





Leave the above words on the board. Write the words on the 
board in a third series as follows : 

reference, allusion 

There is no reason why you should look at me that 

way, as I made no reference to you. 

demonstration, proof, public exhibition 
There was a great demonstration in favor of 
woman suffrage outside of the Mouses of Parlia- 
ment. 



118 SPECIAL METHODS 

anxiety, care, disturbance of mind 

We showed no anxiety about the money, as we 

knew it was safe at home. 

disengage, free oneself 

Though he tried to hold me, I gently disengaged 

myself and walked away from him. 

Let pupils look up the words in a dictionary and if possible, get 
other sentences for the words. Spend less time on such words as- 
Christmas, governor, arithmetic, etc. Illustrate words like, yawn, 
island, etc., by a simple pantomime or drawing. 

3. Formal study of words. In the lower grades write three 
or four words on the board, thus : 

trot ting 
laugh 
thorn 
tired 

Have the pupils visualize the words, as words, and as syllables. 
Direct them as follows : 

How many ' t 's ' in trotting ? 

Look at the double ' t. ' 

Look again. What is the one 't' followed by? 

What is in front of the other 't'? 

Look at the whole word. 

Close eyes. Who can see the letters? 

Go through a similar process with the other words. Point out the 
'augh' in 'laugh.' Write the word thus: 1 AU gh. Have the 
pupils visualise it in the manner suggested. Emphasise the parts 
of the other words in the same way. 

In the higher grades, write five or ten words on the board, thus : 

ref er ence Christ mas 

dem on stra tion as sist cd 

anx i c ty sin gu lar 

dis en gage op po site 

af fee Hon ati hj gov em or 



SPELLING 119 

Point to each word, syllable by syllable. Direct the class as 
follows : 

Look at each syllable as I point to it. 

Look again. 

Begin at the first syllable and look across to the last. 

Look at the whole word. 

Close eyes. Try to see the word. Try to see the syllables. 

Try to mark out the letters with your fingers. 

Eyes open. 

Do not be satisfied to have pupils close and open eyes in a nie- 
•chanical and perfunctory manner. Pause after each direction. 
Make sure that the pupils are really trying to visualise the word. 
Test one or two with their eyes closed. Ask them to mark out in 
the air with their fingers the letters they 'see.' With the lower 
classes take one or two words at a time. Finally have the class 
visualise the whole five, after they have gone over each word in 
the manner indicated. With the higher classes give as many as ten 
-or fifteen words in groups of five. 

4. Word building. In the lower grades let the pupils con- 
struct words similar to the one in the exercises. Write the words 
on the board, thus : 

trotting 

rot 

blot 

dot 

jot 

mat 

knit 

Have the pupils read the complete word, and spell it out. keep- 
ing to the model, 'trotting.' Construct lists when this is possible, 
thus : 

thorn tired 

h f 

t h 

b m 

c s 

m w 



120 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Let the pupils pronounce the words and then spell them. Call 
upon a number of pupils for the same word. Pass around the class, 
quickly. 

Give similar exercises in the higher grades. In addition let the 
pupils build words on a given stem. Take the following words, for 
example : 



reference 
refer 
referring 
referred 


demonstration 
demonstrated^ 
demonstrate 
demonstrating 


disengage 

disengaged 

disengaging 


preference 
prefer 
preferring 
preferred 


remonstration 
remonstrated, 
remonstrate 
remonstrating 


engage 

engaged 

engaging 


conference 
confer 
conferring 
conferred 


anxious 

anxiety 


dismiss 

dismissed 

dismissing 


deference 

defer 

deferring 

deferred 




disorder 
disordered 
disordering 
disorderly 



Write a series of words on the board, 
similar series based on the same stem. 



Let the pupils construct 



5. The vowels, long and short. From the fourth year up, im- 
press upon the pupils the effect of vowel values on the spelling of 
simple words. Write a series of words on the board as follows : 

bake bone cute 

c—~ c— j— 

/— h— I— 



bite 
fe- 
rn — 



/- 



l- 



m— 



Have the pupils pronounce each word, and then spell it. Let them 
give similar words. Write them on the board, as follows: 



race- 
place 
case 
lace 



ice 
mice 
nice 
rice 



dance 


blade 


lance 


lado 


prance 


glade 


grievance 


fade 



side 
glide 
tide 
ride 



SPELLING 



121 



Add words yourself from time to time. Have the pupils pro- 
nounce them and spell them. Call attention to the long sound of 
the vowel when 'e' ends the word. Show the same thing with 
words ending in ''ight," as tight, fight, light, etc. 

Take a list of words with the long vowel, and show the effect 
produced when the final 'e' is removed, thus: 



bite 


bit 


cute 


cut 


kite 


kit 


:j ute 


jut 


mite 


mit 


lute 


hit 


site 


sit 


mute 


mut 



Pronounce the words. Have the pupils pronounce the words, 
and spell them. Let them give other words with short vowels, as 
nut, but, not, sot, tot, lot, hot, etc. Arrange the words in series, 
thus : 



but 


cot 


bet 


bat 


bat 


hut 


dot 


get 


ban 


cat 


cut 


got 


jet 


bad 


fat 


gut 


hot 


let 


back 


hat 


jut 


jot 


met 


bag 


mat 


nut 


lot 


net 


bass 


pat 



Let the pupils pronounce the words and spell them. Let them 
arrange other series. 

6. The endings, ing, and er. Show that the last letter of a 
word is usually doubled when the vowel is short, in words like : 



cutting cut ting 
setting set ting 
rotting rot ting 



running run ning 



sitting 
batting 



sit ting 
bat ting 



Have the pupils give as many words as possible, 
upon the board. Point out the spelling, as follows : 



Write them 



From what word does 'cutting' come? 
Is the sound of s u' in 'cut' long or short? 
Give the short sound. The long sound. 
Give other words with the short sound of ' u: 
Spell the words, with 'ing.' 



122 SPECIAL METHODS 

Go through the vowels, a, e> i, o, u. Give similar exercises with 
such words as. bitter, batter, butter, cutter, setter, etc. Write the 
words on the board as follows: 

cutter cut ter cu TT er cut 

Have the pupils pronounce the word, spell it, give the stem word, 
and pronounce the short sound of the vowel. 

Take up the long sounds of the vowels, and show that the last 
letter is not doubled when 'ing' or ' er' is added. Write the fol- 
lowing words on the board : 



racing 


rac ing 


spacing 


spac ing 


space 


gliding 


glid ing 


prancing 


pranc ing 


glide 



Let the pupils give other words. Write them on the board. 
Proceed in the same manner with words ending in 'er,' as, racer, 
spacer, dancer, etc. Let the pupils give as many words as possi- 
ble. Write the words on the board. Call upon the pupils to pro- 
nounce the words, spell them, give the stem word, spell it, and 
finally, give the long sound" of the vowel. 

7. Effect of accent on the last letter. Show how the last letter 
is doubled when 'ing' is added to such words as. 

occurring occur ring 

controlling control ling 

beginning begin ning 

committing commit ting 

Question the pupil as follows: 

Pronounce the words, 'occur,' 'control,' etc. 
Where is the accent? 

Give other words accented on the last syllable. 
Spell them with 'ing' added. 

Write a series of words on the board like the following : 

travel jewel 

conquer benefit 



SPELLING 123 

Have the pupils pronounce the words. Show that the accent 
is on the first syllable. Ask for similar words. Write them on 
the board. Then add l ing/ or 'er,' thus: 

traveling traveler 

conquering conqueror 

developing developer 

summoning summoner 

Call the attention of the pupils to the fact that the last letter is 
not doubled when 'ing' or ' er' is added. 

8. The ei and ie when pronounced like ee. Write the word 
'receive' on the board, and spend some time on it. Proceed as 
follows : 

Go through the alphabet from a to i. 

Is c nearer the e or the if 

Note how it is written in the word. 

Write the word on the board with the ei emphasised, thus : 

re CEI ve CEI 

reCEIve 
CEI pronounced CE 

Question the pupils: 

What letter follows the cf 

Read the two letters which follow the c. 

How is the word spelled? 

Spell 'deceive.' 

Let the pupils then know that c is always followed by the com- 
bination ei, in the words 'receive' and 'deceive.' Tell them that 
other letters are followed by the combination ie in such words as, 
believe, chief, etc. Write the following words on the board, and 
let the pupils pronounce the words and complete the spelling: 

- bel - - ve, p - - ee, y - - Id, n - - ce, w - - Id 

If any of the pupils hesitate in the spelling, caution them that 
there is no e before the combination. When the pupils are sure 
of the spelling of the two words, 'receive' and 'believe,' give them 
the two exceptions, 'seize' and 'field.' 



124 SPECIAL METHODS 

9. The use of capitals. Teach the pupils how to write their 
names property. Insist on distinct and emphatic capitals at the 
beginning of each name. Do not let any of the pupils write their 
names with initial letters which are a compromise between capitals 
and small letters. Show the pupils how to write the necessary capi- 
tals. Call upon the pupils to give other names, thus: 

What is the name of the baker? The grocer? 
How is it spelled ? How is the first letter written ? 

Give lessons in dictation on the capital as used in names. Let 
the pupils see how the 'I' is always written when it stands alone. 
Write it and print it on the board. Let it remain on the board 
during a dictation lesson on the use of the ' I. ' 

Illustrate the use of the capital in the naming of streets, cities, 
and countries. Call upon some of the pupils to give their residences. 
Write them on the board, thus : 

173 East 62 Street 
234 First Avenue 
23 St. John's Place 

Question the pupils as follows: 

What words are written with capital letters? 

What other words? 

How should we write 'New York City?' 

If necessary, write out for each pupil his name and address. 
Proceed next to the names of other cities, other countries, and other 
nationalities. Insist on the pupil writing and spelling such proper 
names with a capital, and saying, 'Capital F-r-e-n-c-h ' when he 
spells the word. 

10. The prefixes dis, pre, co, and the suffixes ness, and ly. In 
the higher grades bring out the distinct value in spelling possessed 
by the suffixes and prefixes mentioned. Write a number of words 
on the board as follows: 

satisfy similar sent 



SPELLING 125 

Ask the pupils to prefix 'dis' before each of the words. Direct 
them as follows : 

Spell 'satisfy.' 

Spell 'dis.' Keep the 's' in both. 

Spell 'dissatisfy.' 

Write the word on the board as follows : 

dis satisfy diS Satisfy diS Satisfy 

In the same manner take up the words like, misstep, cooperate, 
disappoint, disappear, preeminent, etc., and suddenness, keenness, 
legally, lonely, etc. Let the pupils give other words of this kind. 

11. Grammatical forms. If any of the spelling words are 
nouns, let the pupils spell both singular and plural, masculine and 
feminine, and the possessive. Spend time on such words as potato, 
negro, cargo, etc. If the words allow, have the pupils give the 
adjective, adverb, verb, etc. Question them as follows: 

What part of speech is the word 'reference?' 
Look at your book for the sentence. 
What other words are formed from the same stem? 
Which may be used as a verb? Spell it. 

12 Suffixes and prefixes. After a number of words have been 
taken up with the class, analyse some of the words which have a 
common prefix. Take for example the prefix, 're,' as occurring 
in such words as reference, repair, restore, repeat, etc. Write the 
words on the board, and underline the 're.' Bring out the point 
that in each word the meaning carries in it the idea of 'again,' 
or 'back.' Call upon the pupils to give other words beginning 
with 're.' Write these words on the board. Have the pupils 
pronounce and spell them. Take up other prefixes as they occur in 
the spelling words, as, dis, un, ex, etc. Proceed in much the same 
manner in the study of suffixes. Do not prepare set lists, but use 
the spelling words of the grade as the basis of word analysis. 
Explain the meaning of the suffix, let the pupils construct words 
with similar suffixes, and then have them pronounce the words given, 
and spell them. 



126 



SPECIAL METHODS 
II. The Ayres Spelling List 



The 542 Words Which With Thejr Repetitions Constitute 

Seven-eighths of the 23,629 Words Tabulated. The Figures 

Show the Number of Times Each Word Appeared 



I 1,080 

the 918 

and 697 

yon 635 

to 627 

vour 585 

of 511 

for 415 

in 391 

dear 380 

a 311 

will 297 

my 258 

with 255 

as 241 

we 241 

very 236 

have 216 

that 207 

me 203 

it 197 

please 182 

send 176 

this 172 

trulv 166 

if .' 154 

on 150 

he 148 

is 144 

which 143 

sincere! v 142 

at 138 

not 123 



would 120 

sir 113 

thank 113 

from . . .- 107 

but 106 

once 105 

are 103 

by 101 

one 99 

enclose 82 

so 82 

was 79 

can 76 

any 73 

there 73 

number 69 

receive 67 

Miss 66 

am 65 

has 65 

work 65 

respectfully ... 63 

letter 61 

some 61 

time 61 

or 59 

find 58 

kindly 58 

gentlemen 56 

hope 56 

our 56 

been 53 

do 53 



sent 53 

they 53 

what 53 

when 53 

who 53 

know 52 

may 52 

oblige 52 

them 52 

he ... 51 

school 51 

an 48 

good 47 

also 46 

she 46 

about 45 

mail 44 

more 44 

other 43 

wish 43 

these 42 

all 41 

had 41 

order 40 

us 40 

year 40 

day 39 

here 39 

could 38 

return 38 

should 38 

get 37 

like 37 



1 Leonard P. Ayres, The Spelling Vocabularies of Personal and Business 
Letters. Division of Education, Russell Sage Foundation, 1913. 

Dr. Ayres has kindly given me permission to reprint the entire list of 
the 542 words which constituted seven-eighths of the vocabularies of 2,000 
letters which he tabulated, word by word. Dr. Ayres has published a num- 
ber of similar pamphlets which are issued by the Russell Sage Foundation. 
500 Metropolitan Tower. New York City. 



SPELLING 127 

Mr 37 size 24 attend . 19 

now 37 three 24 cent 19 

under 37 where 24 look 19 

let 36 ask 23 month 19 

madam 36 book 23 over 19 

possible 36 date 23 state 19 

two 36 first 23 arrange 18 

week 36 glass 23 article 18 

come 35 made 23 city 13 

go 34 most 23 desire IS 

were . ! 34 reply 23 house 18 

his 33 then 23 how 18 

soon 32 thing 23 January ] H 

address 31 use 23 only 18 

give 31 yesterday 23 people 18 

her 31 absence 22 put 18 

home 31 appoint 22 separate 18 

see 31 did 22 understand ... 18 

after 30 however 22 writing 18 

just 30 information ... 22 away 17 

great 29 need 22 before 17 

make 29 since 22 experience 17 

next 29 stamp 22 hear 17 

up 29 take 22 keep 17 

want 29 another 21 office 17 

much 28 friend 21 shall 17 

children 27 him 21 subject 17 

out 27 little 21 until 17 

soap 27 many 21 association 16 

tell 27 Monday 21 Friday 16 

think 27 new 21 love 16 

trust 27 picture 21 matter 16 

during 26 suggest 21 medical 16 

feel . 26 answer 20 meeting 16 

regard 26 call 20 public 16 

follow 25 copy 20 room 16 

last 25 don't 20 say 16 

premium 25 girl 20 such 16 

report 25 glad 20 Sunday 16 

than 25 kind 20 sure 16 

doctor 24 list 20 well 16 

interest 24 ring 20 why 16 

money 24 show 20 better 15 

morning 24 thought 20 cordially 15 

no 24 afternoon 19 enough 15 

present 24 again 19 expect 15 

same 24 allow 19 intend 15 



128 



SPECIAL METHODS 



July 15 

mother 15 

paper 15 

refer 15 

their 15 

through 15 

Thursday 15 

ago . . 14 

appreciate 14 

cover 14 

education 14 

evening 14 

name 14 

plan 14 

question 14 

remain 14 

seem 14 

those 14 

way 14 

while 14 

August 13 

best 13 

board 13 

child 13 

check 13 

four 13 

favor 13 

help 13 

inform 13 

investigate .... 13 

large 13 

long 13 

o'clock 13 

perhaps 13 

reason 13 

September 13 

start 13 

study 13 

too 13 

Tuesday 13 

accept 12 

anything 12 

April 12 

attention 12 

because 12 

beg 12 

case 12 



catalogue 12 

class j 2 

daughter 12 

due 12 

each 12 

early 12 

either 12 

forward 12 

ill . 12 

lady 12 

line 12 

March 12 

necessary 12 

November 12 

pamphlet 12 

request 12 

secretary 12 

shipment 12 

speak 12 

teacher 12 

whether 12 

willing 12 

written 12 

course 11 

distribute 11 

earliest 11 

February 11 

few 11 

fine 11 

given 11 

yes 11 

kindness 11 

leading 11 

night 11 

off 11 

particular 11 

personal 11 

Saturday 11 

secure 11 

service 11 

sorry 11 

without 11 

account 10 

boy 10 

business 10 

came 10 

certain 10 



convenient .... 10 

December 10 

department .... 10 

factory 10 

general 10 

hour 10 

June 10 

leave 10 

May 10 

member 10 

mention 10 

October 10 

pay 10 

receipt 10 

something 10 

today 10 

train 10 

used 10 

Wednesday ... 10 

write 10 

baby 9 

back ' 9 

church 9 

cold 9 

company 9 

contain 9 

does 9 

filled 9 

gold 9 

hand 9 

importance .... 9 

measure 9 

must 9 

never 9 

offer 9 

old 9 

part 9 

place 9 

pleasure 9 

position 9 

post 9 

reach 9 

read 9 

recent 9 

representative . . 9 

small 9 

summer 9 



SPELLING 



129 



table 9 

talk 9 

though 9 

took 9 

unable 9 

alone 8 

appear 8 

await 8 

become 8 

bed 8 

box ' 8 

■center 8 

change 8 

claim 8 

cost 8 

country 8 

different 8 

done 8 

else 8 

entitle 8 

especially 8 

expense 8 

father 8 

further 8 

inspect 8 

late 8 

material 8 

move 8 

Mrs 8 

nice 8 

obtain 8 

promise 8 

prompt 8 

publish ....... 8 

salary 8 

second 8 

several 8 

street 8 

success 8 

tomorrow 8 

wear 8 

woman 8 

wrote 8 

application .... 7 

arrive 7 

assistance 7 

assure 7 



bad ....... 

believe . . . 

both 

building . 

card 

cause 
Christmas 
consider . . 
decide . . . 
direction . 
down 

ever 

fully 

gave 

hat. 

hard 

heard 

hold 

nothing . . 

issue 

left 

1 osson 

man 

mean 
meet 
note 

out 

panel 

pair 

pass 

pretty . . . 
probably . 
quite 

rain 

ready 

remember 

right 

set 

short 
signature 

slide 

special . . . 
stand 

still 

stop 

surprise .. 
ticket 



7 towards 7 

7 trouble 7 

7 try 7 

7 unfortunate ... 7 

7 visit 7 

7 volume 7 

7 weather 7 

7 wonder 7 

7 always 6 

7 among 6 

7 begin 6 

7 busy 6 

7 chain 6 

7 committee 6 

7 convenience ... 6 

7 develop 6 

7 direct 6 

7 effort 6 

7 enjoy 6 

7 examination ... 6 

7 finally 6 

7 form 6 

7 half 6 

7 honor 6 

7 hope 6 

7 hospital 6 

7 illustrate 6 

7 impossible 6 

7 instead 6 

7 labor 6 

7 land 6 

7 least 6 

7 mark 6 

7 men 6 

7 news 6 

7 none 6 

7 open 6 

7 paid 6 

7 person 6 

7 plain 6 

7 pleasant . 6 

7 practical 6 

7 prefer 6 

7 president 6 

7 print 6 

7 private 6 

7 recommend .... 6 



130 



SPECIAL METHODS 



red 

refer . . 
relative 
saw 

select . . 
silver . . 
song . . . 



6 splendid 6 went 

6 statement 6 west . 

6 supply 6 white 

6 terrible 6 whom 

6 upon 6 world 

6 wait 6 worth 

6 watch 6 



6 

6 
(1 
6 
6 
6 



III. Dictation 



1. Selection of material. 

tation or transcription : 



Use the following material for dic- 



(a) Short memory gems and classic prose selections 

(b) Short sentences based on the language word, as, (1) verb 
forms of is, do, see, come, go, give, ivrite, sing, bring, think, break? 
catch, drive, know, throw, lie, lay, run, eat, tear, etc., (2) plurals,, 
(3) irregular comparisons, etc. 

(c) Short sentences to illustrate punctuation, combined if pos- 
sible, with (b) 

(d) Common expressions, greetings, daily usage, colloquial and 
idiomatic expressions, etc. 

(e) Letter forms 

(/) Correlated material from history, geography, nature 
study, etc. 

2. Study of the model. Have the selection written on the 
board. If available, use a book in the higher grades. Develop the 
meaning rapidly as suggested in reading. Point to the aspect to be 
studied, as, the form of the verb, the plural used, the kind of punc- 
tuation mark, the capitalization, etc. Write such parts to one side- 
of the selection and in addition underline the same parts in the 
selection. Use yellow or red chalk for this purpose. Conduct the- 
visualization and study of the model somewhat as follows : 

(a) Second year. Two to four lines. 

Where the bee sucks, there suck I -. suck J 

In a cowslip's bell I lie; I //\ 

Where J couch when oivls do cry. I couch 

On /In bat's back I do fly. I do fly 
How is the 'I' written in each case? 



DICTATION 131 

Read what 'I' do. 

"What else do I do ? 

How do we write the 'I'? 

Point to yourself as you read, 'I suck, I lie, etc' 

Who sucks? "Who lies? "Who couches? 

Look at the letters in suck. In cowslip 's. 

Look again. "Who can spell these words? 

Now I cover the first line. "Who can read it ? 

Spell sucks. How is the 'I' written? 

Now I cover the first two lines. "Who can read them ? 

Spell 'Cowslip's.' 'Bell.' 'Lie.' 

How is the 'I' written? 

"Who can write, 'lie' on the board ? 

(b) Tliird year. Four to six lines. 

Thirty days hath September, September 

April, June and November. April 

All the rest have thirty one, June 

Excepting February alone, November 

Which has four and twenty four February 
And every leap year, one day more. 

Name the months given in the piece. 

What kind of a letter is used for the beginning of the word ? 

Spell 'September.' What mistake did vou make? Yes, 

'Capital S.' 
Spell 'April.' What other months can vou name? 
How is 'March' spelled? 
Why is it begun with a capital letter? 
Read over the whole six lines. 
Read over the first two lines. 
Look at each syllable in Sep - tern - ber. 
Look at each syllable in No - vem - ber. 
As I cover the first two lines, try to remember them. 
Who can repeat the first two lines? 
Who can write 'September' on the board? 
On your trial sheets write 'September, November, and 

April. ' 
Look at the board. Copy the same words. 
Who has spelled all three correctly? 
Look at Feb - ru - a - ry. Look at 'ru. ' 
Spell it. Copy it on your trial slip. 

(c) Fourth year. Four to eight lines. 

Then I walked up to Mary and said, "Who has seen 
John? Have you seen him?" 



132 SPECIAL METHODS 

Mary said in answer, "John was not seen by any one 
to-day." 

''Who saw him last?" I ashed. 

Mary answered, "I saiv him last night." 



has seen Mary said, "John was seen." 

have seen "Mary," said John, "was seen." 

was seen Mary said, "I saw him." 

saw "Mary," said I, "saw him." 

Look at the words which are used with 'seen.' 

Read out the words used with 'seen.' 

What did Mary say? 

Give the exact words which Mary said. 

Why are the quotation marks used around these words? 

How many quotation marks are used ? 

Where is each mark placed ? 

What does the mark at the beginning mean? 

What does the mark at the end mean? 

Read the sentence with the marks placed around 'Mary* 

and 'was seen.' Why stop after 'Mary?' 
Where does the quotation begin with the marks changed ? 
Look for marks other than quotation marks. 
How many other marks are used ? Name them. 

(d) Fifth year. Five to ten lines. 

230 East 88 Street, 
New York, June 15, 1912. 
Mr. James E. Brown, 
500 Park Avenue, 
New York City. 
Dear Sir, 

In answer to your request of 
June 12, permit me to state that the two 
dozen books you ask for will reach you 
within a few days. 

I thank you for the order, and am, 

Very truly yours. 
Robert North. 

Write the letter on the board. Pay special attention to form, 
punctuation, and margins. Direct and question as follows : 

Where are the commas in the first line? In the second? 
Punctuate this heading: 215 East 98 Street 

Boston April 19 1911 
Write your own address on the board, Smith. Jones do so. 



DICTATION 133 

Who can punctuate properly ? Moore, try it. 

Write your own addresses on the trial sheet. 

Where will you put the first comma ? 

Where do the commas go in the second line? 

Hold up your papers. No, you left out the comma after 

New York. 
Yes, that is very fine. 
Papers down. Where are the commas in the next four 

lines ? 

Punctuate this, Mr Robert F W Smith 

184 East 78 Street 
New York City 
Dear Sir 

Call upon several pupils to answer. Call upon a pupil to go to the 
board and put in the marks while the class looks on. 

Now we shall see how to arrange each line. 

Under what letter is the 5 of 500? 

Under what figure is the N of New York ? 

Under what letter is the D in Dear Sir 9 

Use your trial sheets. Rule a light line. 

Begin each line right up against the line you ruled. 

Hold up your papers. Down. 

If the slanting form is used, 

Mr. James E. Brown, 
500 Park Avenue, 
Neiv York City. 

proceed in a similar manner. Indicate under what letter the line 
is to begin. Have a slanting line ruled on the trial sheets. Inspect 
papers to see that the proper form has been copied. From three to 
eight pupils usually insist on doing it wrongly. Have them do it 
over. 

Read the letter. Why is it written? 
Who do you think is Mr. Brown? 
How else could you end the letter? 
Where do you begin to write, 'Very truly yours?' 
Where do you sign your own name? 
Write some other closing on the board, Emma. 
Josie, try it. 

Who can punctuate this, Respectfully yours 

Frank R Thomas 



134 SPECIAL METHODS 

Hold up your papers. 

Look at the board. Are your commas in the same place? 

Look again. Frank. Yes, that is right now. 

(e) Sixth year. Eight to fifteen lines. 

We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more 
perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity , provide 
for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the 
blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and 
establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 

Why do we 'ordain and establish this Constitution?' 
Why is not the expression, 'in order to' repeated with 

each reason? 
Read some of the phrases which go with 'in order to.' 
What is the last phrase to go with 'in order to?' 
What word tells you that this is the last phrase? 
What mark separates each of the expressions? 
Read over the selection. 

Read it again. Read each of the 'in order to' phrases. 
Look at them again. 

What does the first one mean? The second one? Etc. 
What is 'domestic tranquillity?' 'Posterity?' 
Read over the whole selection. 
Who can repeat it? 

IV. Use of the Dictionary 

1. Correction of spelling. 4A through SB. Introduce the 
pupils to the dictionary by having them look up the spelling of 
words. Direct the pupils as follows: 

What is the first letter of the word ? 
What part of the page will guide you? 
Who has the page with t at the top? 
What letter follows t in the word? 

Let the pupils use the dictionary while writing spelling words 
or dictation. Let the pupils go over the lists, or the dictation, and 
rewrite any words misspelled. Do not count such words wrong. 
Give the pupils the benefit of their work in using the dictionary to 
correct their work. 

2. Accent of syllabication. -LI through - Q />. Write a list of 
words on the board and let the pupils look up the pronunciation. 
Take words such as: 



DICTIONARY 135 

recess address 

annex detail 

Direct the class as follows : 

Look up the word 'recess.' 

Read the first syllable. The second syllable. 

Spell the first syllable. 

Which syllable is accented? 

How is the accent shown? 

Select words which the pupils mispronounce. Take words 
from the reading of the grade. Deal with the spelling words in the 
same manner. Have the pupils carefully pronounce each syllable, 
then the word, and finally have them spell the word, syllable by 
syllable. Explain the meaning of the following signs: u , — , - , ' 

3. Word building. 44 through SB. Take the words selected 
for the lesson and write them on the board. Ask the pupils to look 
up the word, and find what other words are built upon the same 
stem, thus: 

thorn trot 

thorny trotted 

thornier trotting 

thorniest trotter 

4. Meaning and use. oA through 8B. Assign a portion of the 
lesson in reading or memory work. Underline the words on the 
board. Let the pupils look up the meaning of the words, and read 
the passage in the new words found in the dictionary, thus : 

He inherited, however, out little of the martial character 
of his ancestors. 

inherited = received, was endowed with 
martial = warlike, manly 

character = bearing, nature, nature disposition 
ancestor = forefather 

In the same manner let the pupils find substitute expressions for 
words in their spelling lists. 



136 SPECIAL METHODS 

5. Parts of speech. 1A through SB. If pupils are in doubt 
concerning the usage of words, or concerning the class to which the 
words belong, have them consult the dictionary. Let them look up 
the following words : 

yes 

no 

like 

seen 

done 

there 

Direct them as follows : 

Use the word in a sentence. 

What part of the sentence is it? 

What part of speech is the word? Look it up. 

What part of speech is 'yes?' 'There?' 

6. Synonyms, antonyms, and prepositions. 6A through 8B. 
After the meaning of words has been developed, deal with similar 
meanings, opposites, and the preposition usually employed with the 
word in question. Write the words on the board : 

spasmodic 
anguish 
anxiety 
recommend 

After the meaning of the word has been developed, ask the 
class to look up the word in the dictionary and get expressions which 
mean about the same" thing. Then call upon pupils to give the 
opposites. If there is any special preposition which usually goes 
with the word, have such prepositions looked up, as, 'to recommend 
for a position,' 'to show anxiety for a person's return, anxiety 
about or regarding an event.' etc. 

7. Derivation and history of words. 7 1 through SB. If a 
word has a history, let the class look it up. Have the pupils find 
the stem of a word and then look up other Avords with the same stem. 



CHAPTER VII 
COMPOSITION — VISUAL 

I. Selection of Material 

Use the composition period solely for the purpose of developing 
expression. Do not attempt, in addition, to load the pupils with the 
facts which they are to use. Base the composition only on subject 
matter with which the pupils are familiar. In history, nature study, 
etc., the material should be that which has been taught in previous 
lessons. The period in composition should then make use of this 
material, should, in fact, be a form of review. Bring the composi- 
tion within the circle of the children's personal life and interests. 
Make use of their general information, their school studies, their 
daily experiences, ocupations, etc. Deal with the immediate envi- 
ronment of the pupils, as, the school, the home, and the immediate 
neighborhood. For example, 'My Back Yard' has more of an 
appeal to a child than, 'The Sahara Desert,' and 'My Escape from 
the Policeman' more interest than 'Washington's Retreat from 
Long Island.' Dramatic impersonation will produce better results 
than more formal narration. Thus, if Washington's Retreat has 
been studied in the classroom, the composition might be on, 'Hou' 
We Escaped from Long Island.' Do not spend any of the compo- 
sition period in painfully filling the pupils with facts which are 
immediately to be vomited forth. Keep to what the pupils already 
know, either because of their general experience in the home, street 
and school, or because of what they have learned in school during 
preceding lessons in the subjects concerned. The following are sug- 
gestive titles: 

1. Dramatic impersonations 

(a) Fairy tales, fables, myths 

How I Killedthe Giant 

How We Found the Golden Fleece 

My Ride on Pegasus 

What I Did with My Lamp 

My Escape from Bluebeard 

137 



138 SPECIAL METHODS 

(b) Nature study 

My Day's Work (Horse) 

My Night Watch (Dog) 

My Home (Coop, Stable) 

A Scare (Babbit) 

How I Live (Mole, Fox, Cat, Dog) 

My Enemies (Bird, Squirrel, Rabbit) 

Farm Life (Pig, Hen, Cow) 

My Life Underground (Seed, Root) 

In the Air (Leaf, Branch, Twig, Flower) 

When the Sun Begins to Shine (Any Plant) 

My Travels to the Market (Apple, Pear, Peach, etc.) 

How I Became a Piece of Cloth (Cotton, Wool, Silk) 

Story of a Raindrop 

My Travels (River, Fish, Etc.) 

How I Became a Grain of Sand 

(c) History, biography, etc. 

My Talk with Columbus 

My Travels with De Soto (Any Explorer) 

How I Saved Washington's Life 

My Visit to President (King ) 

The Flag I Made ( Betsy Ross) 

How I Invented the Cotton Gin (Eli Whitney) 

My First Phonograph (Edison) 

My First Sight of Land (Any Explorer) 

Our First Indian Attack (Any Colony) 

How We Raise Cotton (Wheat, Corn, Wool, etc.) 

In the Ice Fields (Nansen, Peary) 

How I Discovered the North Pole (Peary) 

How I Rescued Livingston (Stanley) 

How My Vote Passed the Bill 

Why I Vetoed the Bill 

2. Invention and imagination 

(a) The unfinished story (Dramatic) 

When I went to school this morning, . 



Last night I found 
I once met 



If I were the teacher, 

Suddenly I heard a sound. 
A man said to me, 



While I was sleeping, T heard the window slowly open. 
A white figure passed before me. I . 



COMPOSITION 139 

I ran fast. Then a whistle blew. 

"We tried another path. It grew darker. 

(b) The unfinished story (Impersonal) 

Two goats met on a bridge. 

The lion and the man met in the arena. 

A solitary horseman was riding through the dark forest. 

The policeman saw a man with a large bundle. 

He stood there,, his sword in his hand. They — . 

Taking careful aim, he fired. 

All night long he sat, carefully working at it. 

The captain was awakened by a splash of cold water 

across his face. 
He tumbled into a large cave. 
She waited and waited. Then she saw . 

(c) Picture study 
3. Narration 

(a) Stories, fables, etc. 

The Fox and the Grapes 

The Cow and the Clover Field 

The Mouse and the Cheese 

The Girl and the Diamond Ring 

The Beggar and the Doughnuts 

The Boy and the Candy 

(N. B. The first can be used as a model. Any of the 

others can be imitations.) 
Hunting a Bear 

Hunting a Wolf (Lynx, Lion, Fox, etc.) 
An Accident 'Round the Corner 
An Accident in the Park (In the Country, In the East 

River, etc.) 
(Keep to the stories of the grade. Use this story as a 

model, and select an imitation of the story). 

(b) Change of poetry to prose 

Poe's Raven, Eldorado 

Tennyson's Beggar Maid 

Longfellow's Skeleton in Armor, Wreck of the 

Hesperus 
Whittier 's Barbara Frietchie 
Bret Harte's John Burns of Gettysburg 
(Select poems which the class has studied or read. 
Keep to the reading and literature of the grade) . 



140 SPECIAL METHODS 

(c) Travels 

Travels of a Penny (Dramatic, 'I,' or impersonal, 

'It') 
Travels of a Stamp (Hat, Coat, Shoe, Pencil, etc.) 
Voyage of a Cork (Boat, Board, Bottle, etc.) 
Adventures of a Piece of Coal (Lead, Gold, Iron, etc.) 
The Short Tale of a Match (Glass, Fork, Plate, etc.) 
From the Fields to the City (Corn, Wheat, Cow, Pig, 

etc.) 



(d) Correlated history, biography, etc. 

Voyage of Columbus (Cabot, Verrazzani, Balboa, etc.) 

Settlement of 

The Discovery of 

The Invention of 



The Inauguration of 

Death of 

Life of 

Boyhood of 



Administration of — 

Slavery 

The First Telegraph 



(e) Current events 

(Post on a bulletin board, pictures and accounts from 
the monthlies and weeklies) . 



4. Description 

(a) School life 

My Classmate 

My Teacher 

Our Classroom 

Our Books 

The Blackboard 

Our School Garden 

A Rapid Drill 

The Last Day of School 

The First Day of School 

The Reception We Had 

Our Field Day 



COMPOSITION 141 

(&) Neighborhood life 

The Grocery Store 

The Store 

The Butcher 

The Baker (Shoemaker, Grocer, etc.) 

The Policeman 

The Fireman (Street Cleaner, Conductor, Letter 

Carrier, etc.) 
The Organ Grinder 
The Pushcart Man 

The Cash Girl (Errand Boy, Saleslady, Cook, etc.) 
April Fool's Day 
Fourth of July 

Thanksgiving Day in Our Block (Square or Street) 
A Fire (An Arrest, An Ambulance Call, etc.) 

(c) Nature study, etc. 

The Trailing Arbutus 

The Dandelion (Sunflower, Sweetbrier, Violet, Lilac, 

"Wheat Plant, Ivy, Seaweed, etc.) 
The Apple Tree (Peach, Chestnut, Elm, Willow, Pine, 

etc.) 
The Bobolink (Robin, Catbird, Thrush, etc.) 
The Hen (Duck, Turkey, Quail, Partridge, etc.) 
My First Dog (Cat, Pigeon, etc.) 
A Horse Trade 
Our Neighbor's Goat 
Pond Life (The Aquarium) 
A Visit to the Zoo 
Farmyard Life (A Barn Yard) 
The Brook 
A River Ford 

Breaking of the Dam at 

Life on a Canal Boat 

New York Harbor 

When It Rains 

Our Street in Winter 

A Thunder Storm ((Snow Storm, A Summer Night) 

Signs of Spring in the City 

(d) Buildings, etc. 

Our School (House, Church, etc.) 
The Theatre (Moving Pictures) 
Our Visit to the City Hall 
The Museum 



142 SPECIAL METHODS 

A Mill (Saw Mill, Flour Mill, etc.) 

A Robin's Nest (Kingfisher's, etc.) 

A Spider's Web (Beehive, Beaver Dam) 

Grant's Tomb (The Obelisk, Monument, etc.) 

(e) Persons, pictures, etc. 

Washington Taking the Oath of Office 

A Minute Man 

One of the Marines 

A Volunteer Going to the Front 

Behind a Big Gun 

Paul Revere 

Enlisting in the Army 

The Bread Line 

Please Help a Poor Blind Man 

Just a Tramp 

(/) Games, etc. 

A Ball Game 

Two Strikes and Two Out 

How Rob Won the Game 

Tag (Hide and Seek) 

How I was ''It' 

Marbles 

How I Won Forty Marbles 

Winning the Relay (High Jump, Dash, etc.) 

(g) Daily occupations and industries 

A Coal Mine 

A Brewery 

A Department Store 

Selling Meat (Fish, Groceries. Cloth, etc.) 

A Laundry 

A Sweat Shop 

An Indian Village 

5. Exposition 

TTow I Do My Homework 

Why I Do (Not) Like — (Arithmetic Reading, etc.) 

How to Make (Butter, Cheese, Coffee. Rice 

Pudding, Tea, Bread, A Roast, etc.) 
How to Make (A Kite, A Relief Map, a Book. 

Cloth, Silk, etc.) 



COMPOSITION 143 

How to Grow (Beans, Celery, Tomatoes. Cabbage, 

Salad, Potatoes, Strawberries, etc.) 
The Stove, Trolley Car, Pump, Dumbwaiter, etc. 

(Explain how it works). 



6. Letters 

(a) Business 

Complaints, excuses, etc. 

Soliciting advertisements 

Asking for price lists, catalogues, etc. 

Ordering goods, sending specifications, etc. 

Asking for a position, refusing a position, resigning, 

etc. 
Returning or exchanging goods 
Receipt with words of thanks 

(b) Social 

To father, mother, brother, sister, friend 

Account of day's work, pastime, promotion, teacher. 

school work, classmate, etc. 
Invitation to party, dinner, visit, etc. 
Letter of regret, thanks, etc. 
(One-half class write to the other half. 
One class write to another class, answer, etc.) 



II. Dramatic Impersonation 

1. Third and fourth years, (a) Presentation and arrangement. 
Group the one or two paragraphs to be written around one or two 
incidents which can be represented on the blackboard and then 
acted out by the children. For example, in the case of the topic, 
' The Scare, ' proceed as follows : 

Do you remember the story of the rabbit and how he was 

almost caught by the fox ? 
Well, this is where I live. (Make sketch). 
This is the grass, this is the log, and over there is the little 

brook. 
Here am I, sitting on the log. (Draw rabbit). 



144 SPECIAL METHODS 

Who wants to be the rabbit ? Come up, John. Hop. 

"Who is the fox? Yes, you may be the fox. 

Here is the forest, here the brook, and here is your log. 

Now show the class what you are eating. 

Run around and look for a place to hide. 

Look there, what do you see? 

Now, brother fox, get behind that desk. Just show your 

nose. 
That will do. Who else wants to be a rabbit? A fox? 
Where are you, brother fox? Come out and smell around. 
Come up closer. Bunny, where do you hide? 
Under the log? Now where do you run? 
What do you do at the brook? Show us how you jump 

across. 
Why does the fox lose the smell? 

Now you are all rabbits. Who can tell where he lives? 
Tell how you play. What you eat. 
Where do you sit and look around? 
What kind of a place is it? 
Who else can tell the story ? 

What do you see when you look around? 

What is the fox like? 

What does he do? What do you do? 

How do you get away? 

What does the fox do? 

As the children tell the story, write down several introductions, 
thus : 

I am a little bunny rabbit. 
My home is in the woods. 
Let me tell you of a scare I once had. 
Once when I was little I did not do what my mother told 
me. 

In addition write the descriptive words which admit of different 
forms of expression. These will be something like the following: 

1. little, small, wee-wee 

run around, play in, jump about in, sea miter through 
a big, mossy log, a log green with moss, a log worm- 
eaten and old 
see, behold, saw, beheld, spied, observed 
nose, snout, nostrils, head 



COMPOSITION 145 

2. afraid, trembled, scared, heart went pit-a-pat, shook 
with fear 
scampered, ran, jumped quickly, hurried, hastened 
sniffed, smelled, put his nose to the ground 
stopped at the log, halted, waited, hesitated, stood still 
jumped, leaped, sprang, etc., etc. 

Write these expressions on the board as they arise in the 
dramatisation and in the story as told by the children. Spend some 
minutes on getting from the children different expressions for the 
same thing. Add some of your own. Group them according to the 
sequence in the story. Aid the children by a series of suggestive 
topics, thus: 

1. My home 
The forest 
The fields 

My hiding place 

What my mother told me to do 

What I did 

2. What I saw 
What the fox did 
Why I was frightened 
How I got away 

(6) Use of the model. Introduce a model narrative after the 
story has been told, after the dramatisation has been worked out, 
after the oral work of the children has been finished, and before the 
children are ready to write. Either read the model or write it on 
the board. The following is based on Ernest Thompson Seton's 
'Raggylug' in his Wild Animals I Have Known: 



Old Olif ant's swamp is a rough, brambly tract of 
woods, with a pond on one side and a stream through the 
middle. A few of the ragged remnants of the old forest 
still stand in it. The older tree trunks lie about as dead 
logs in the brushwood. All around are smooth fields. The 
only tracks in the fields were those of my enemy, the fox. 
My mother told me always to lie still and say nothing in 
case of danger. My hiding place was under one of the big 
logs near my home. Here I would sit and wait for my 
mother to come home to me. One dav I heard a low. snif- 



146 SPECIAL METHODS 

fing sound. I lifted my head above the log and peeped 
into the woods. I shook with mortal fear as I saw my 
old enemy, the fox. 

Near one of the trees he was sniffing around. The 
scent seemed very poor for he kept round and round till 
he stopped near the log. It was a trying moment, but the 
wind blew right. It was blowing away from me. The fox 
halted for a moment. Then he came stealthily sneaking up 
towards me, his nose still on the ground. I fell off the log 
and rolled under. Still nearer came the fox. I darted 
out and ran for the brook. The fox sprang for me. He 
missed, but followed like a racer. I reached the stream 
first. With a wild scream I jumped across. On the other 
side I knew I was safe, but I kept on running till I was out 
of the field. 

Do not attempt any formal study of the model in the above. 
Use the model simply as a general guide to show the children how 
to go about writing the story. So that there may be some corre- 
spondence between the model and the composition to be written, 
keep the model in mind as you introduce the subject of the compo- 
sition. Let the model be your logical plan as you arrange the dram- 
atisation and illustrate the story. Have the model ready for pre- 
sentation after the oral Avork and immediately before the written. 

2. Fifth through eighth years, (a) Presentation and arrange- 
ment. In the higher grades make use of the topical outline and 
hold the pupils to from three to five paragraphs. After the class 
is familiar with the history of New England, give a composition 
based upon the work in history, as, 'How We Settled Plymouth.' 
Proceed somewhat as follows : 

Now we are all Puritans. 

Tell me why you do not want to live in England, John. 

Where can we go? Why? 

Why did we not stay in Leyden? 

Where else can we go? 

How can we get. there? 

What is the topic of this story ? 

Give some other topics. 



COMPOSITION 147 

Call on several pupils for topics for the first paragraph. Write 
them down as they are given, as follows: 

Life in England 
Religious troubles 
Troubles at home 
Flight to Holland 
Life in Holland 
Dissatisfaction in Holland. 
Plans 

Change the wording of the topics as given by the pupils when- 
ever necessary. Arrange the topics in a sequence somewhat as 
follows : 

I. From England to Holland 

1. How we lived in England 

2. Whv we left England 

3. Our life in Holland 

4. Why we left Holland 

5. Our plans 

For the second and third paragraphs proceed in a similar man- 
ner. Question the pupils and write down the topics which they give. 
Then arrange these topics in a sequence similar to the following : 

II. The voyage 

1. Our trip to Southampton 

2. Leak in the Speedwell 

3. Our voyage across the Atlantic. Bad weather 

4. How we passed the time 

5. In sight of land 

III Landing at Plymouth 

1. We draw up a compact and elect a governor 

2. Sufferings from the cold 

3. We land and give thanks. Log cabin 

4. How we passed the first winter 

In the course of the oral work, write down the more difficult 
words and expressions which arise, thus: 

congregation, meeting, assemblage 

persecution 

refugees 

nationality 

enterprise 



148 SPECIAL METHODS 

"Write down introductory sentences or phrases which are given by 
the pupils, thus: 

Yes, things were very different in the old days in England. 
Long ago, I remember it well, we were, greatly persecuted. 
We were not always free to worship as we do now. 
Many years ago. 

(&) Use of the model. Let the pupils have histories before 
them. Use the account given in any good school history as a model. 
Use the model to guide the pupils in the sequence of the narrative, 
to give them facts on which to write, and to afford them words 
and expressions to be used in their personal narrative. Have the 
pupils vary the expressions in the book. Write such variations on 
the blackboard. 

III. Invention and ImaCxINation 

1. The unfinished story. Write the incompleted introduction 
on the board. Pause a few moments. Look at different pupils of 
the class. Then call upon pupils for further details. Have them 
either vary the details implied in the general description, or tell 
possible results of the situation presented. Let them give just 
enough to start the story. Under the incompleted introduction 
write the possible continuations given, thus : 

(a) "Last night I found . " 



a pocketbook. It had three dollars and twenty-five cents 

in it. I ran home to my mother with it. She was 

crying when I came in. 
a pocketbook. It was full of money. Just as I was going 

home with it a man stopped me and said, " — , " 

a pocketbook. Right ahead of me Mas the ladv who dropped 

it. I . 

(6) "Suddenly I heard a sound." 

Kinds of sound heard : 

1. bell ringing 

2. man's voice 

3. footstep 

4. groAvl of an animal 



COMPOSITION 149 

5. click of revolver 

6. tapping at the door 

What I was doing at the time : 

1. lying asleep in my room 

2. walking in the street 

3. hiding behind a tree 

4. sitting on a log 

5. waiting behind a door 

6. reading a book 

What I then did : 

1. I awoke with a start. I knew that I had to meet 

Mr. Smith at the office at 10 o'clock sharp. 

2. I turned around. I saw behind me — . 

3. It sounded like that of the spy who had been fol- 

lowing me all day. 

4. Was it a lion or a tiger ? I grasped my gun - — — . 

5. I knew that the struggle was at hand. Springing 

forward — . 

6. I walked to the door and opened it. I jumped back 
with surprise. It was . 



(c) "The captain was suddenly awakened by a splash of cold 
water across his face." 

The splash was followed by a cold stream which flooded his 

room. 
He woke to hear a grinding noise mixed with women's 

screams. 
He jumped up. Beside him he saw a small stream of water 

trickling through a leak in the ship. 
The ship was tossing about. The wind was howling. 



(d) "He stood there, his sword in hand. They ." 

They rush at him. 

They paused a moment. Then one man came forward. 

They faced him with loaded rifles. 

They drew their swords as they approached the narrow- 
pass. 
Each of the sentences given in the above is a cue for the devel- 
opment of the story. In the third and fourth school years, let the 
pupils tell their story in one or two paragraphs. In the higher 
grades ask for three or four paragraphs. To obtain varied results 
do not attempt to introduce a model. If a model is introduced 



150 SPECIAL METHODS 

restrict the pupils to one variation of the story. The following 
model is based on 'The Siege of the Round House' in Stevenson's 
Kidnapped : 

The Fight 

He stood there, his sword in hand. They waited for 
the captain to come. The captain soon showed his face in 
the open door. 

"Stand!" cried Alan, and pointed his sword at him. 

The captain stood, indeed; but he neither winced nor 
drew back a foot. 

"A naked sword?" said he. "This is a strange 
greeting. ' ' 

"Do you see my sword?" said Alan. "It has slashed 
off more heads than you have toes on your feet. Call up 
your men to your back, sir, and fall on! The sooner the 
clash begins, the sooner you'll taste the steel through your 
vitals. ' ' 

The sea had gone down, and the wind was steady and 
kept the sails quiet; so that there was a great stillness in 
the ship, broken only by muttering voices. A little while 
after, there came a clash of steel upon the deck. They had 
been dealing out cutlasses and one had been let fall. After 
that was silence again. 

It came all of a sudden when it did, with a rush of 
feet, and a roar, and a shout from Alan, and a sound of 
blows and some one crying out as if hurt. Alan stood as 
before. But now his sword was running blood to the hilt. 
Right before him on the floor was the captain, on his hands 
and knees. Blood was pouring from his mouth. He was 
sinking slowly lower, with a terrible, white face. 

Do not attempt any formal study or imitation of the model. 
Let the pupils read it from the board or from the reader to get the 
general swing of the story. Let the pupils read the model to them- 
selves and make notes if necessary. Have the model covered or 
removed while they are writing. Introduce the model soon after 
the oral work has been started. 

2. Picture. Choose a picture which shows life and action. 
The characters, men, women, children, should be doing something 
definite. Choose a masterpiece or a good illustration of some inter- 
esting current event. Let the picture be large enough for each 
pupil to see. If possible, let each pupil have an individual copy 
of the picture. * 



COMPOSITION 151 

(a) Dramatic impersonation. Lead the pupils to grasp the 
meaning of the picture by assigning them some part in it. Let each 
pupil be the man with the hoe, or the dog swimming, or the horse 
pulling the cart, or the fish on the hook, etc. Direct and question 
somewhat as follows: 

See, this is you. Where are you? 
What is on this side of you? 
What is on the other side of you? 
What are you now thinking of? 
How did you get here? 
What are you doing? 
What do you intend to do? 
How do you feel? 
Where would you like to be? 

For the lower grades, write a series of cues on the board, thus : 

1. Where I now am 
How I got here 
What I am doing 

2. How I feel 

What I should like to do 
What I shall do next 

For the higher grades, from the fifth year up, direct the pupils 
with the following outline : 

I. The place : 
II. The characters 

III. The action, conversation, etc. 

IV. General observations, results, intentions, etc. 

(&) Impersonal interpretation. Direct the pupils in a manner 
similar to that suggested above in the case of dramatic impersonation. 
Question somewhat as follows : 

What is the name of the picture? 

Where do you suppose the place is? 

What strikes you most strongly about the place? Why? 

What else is in the place? 

Who are the people in the scene? 

How do they look? 

What are thy wearing? Carrying? 

What are they doing? Saying? Thinking? 

What are their feelings? How can you tell their feelings? 

What do they expect to do? What else may happen? 



152 SPECIAL METHODS 

To make the situation more vivid, give the place a name, and 
introduce the characters as long friends, as, Joe, Mr. Tupper, or 
Fido, etc. Give a time to the action, as, last week, or yesterday, etc. 
Let the pupils tell the story as if they witnessed the scene and the 
action with their own eyes. Direct the class as follows : 

Yes, here is where you were when it happened. 

When was it, last night or the night before? 

Tell me about this house, its rooms, stairways, etc. 

What is the path made of? Where does it lead? 

How long have you known Joe? What kind of a dog is 

Fido? 
How did it begin? Then what happened? 
What did Joe do? What did he say? 
What happened then ? Was Joe satisfied ? 
How do you think he felt? 

Outline the composition for lower grade as follows : 

1. My friend Joe 
Where he is 
What he is like 

2. His work 
How he likes it 

What he is going to do 

For higher grades use a more formal outline, thus : 

I. Time and place 
II. The people 
III. Work, action, conversation, thoughts, feelings, etc. 
IV. General results, plans, etc. 

Do not restrict the pupils by giving them too detailed an out- 
line. Let them freely imagine time and place, characters, action, 
conversation, results, etc. 

IV. Narration 
1. Third and fourth years. After the pupils are familiar with 
some story, historical narrative, etc., let them write on it. As chil- 
dren usually do not keep to the sequence of a narrative, but jump 
back and forth from part to part, hold them to the sequence by 
means of blackboard diagrams. Thus, in the story of 'The Fox 
and the Grapes,' impress the sequence as follows: 



What the fox saw 



What he said 



What he did 



COMPOSITION 153 

Have the children tell all they can about the first incident 
before allowing them to pass to the second. Then do not allow them 
to return to the first or to mix up last with first. As the pupils tell 
the incidents write the different words on the board with possible 
variations, thus: 

autumn day, day in autumn, a cool October day, etc. 

ripe, ripe and juicy, fit to eat, ready to burst their skins, 
etc. 

spread out, covering, hanging all around, etc. 

longed for, wanted to eat, was hungry for, mouth watered 
for, etc. 

made a jump, reached for, leaped towards, stretched him- 
self towards, etc. 

tired out, unsuccessful, weary with his efforts, etc. 

"The grapes are sour," "The grapes do not taste 

good," "Those grapes are not as sweet as the ones I have 

home." etc. 

Let several pupils tell the story using one of the expressions 
written on the board. Try to get as many variations of the ending 
as possible. Use the same general scheme with other narratives, 
thus: 

Story of a Raindrop 



Travels in the air 
Voyage to the ground 



Travels on the ground 
Voyage to the ocean 



The oral work will bring out expressions like: 

in the sky, far overhead, through the air, close to the 
heavens, etc. 

cold wind, biting wind, chilly breeze, a wave of cold, etc. 

dropping, plunging, falling, rushing, pattering, etc. 

struck, reached, stopped at, bounded to the ground, etc. 

dizzy with excitement, out of breath, frightened, crying 
with pain, etc. 

Let the pupils tell the story in a purely impersonal manner, 
or let them impersonate the raindrop. In the latter case start the 
pupils in the first person as follows : 

Now you are little raindrops. 

"Where are you now? 

How do you move around? 

Can you see the earth, so high up? 



154 SPECIAL METHODS 

2. Fifth through eighth years. Hold the pupils to the sequence 
of the narrative by means of the topical outline. Select some topic 
with which they are familiar, as, for example, 'The Founding- of 
Georgia.' Question the pupils as follows: 

Who was Oglethorpe? 

What was his plan? 

Whom did he want to help? 

What was the debtor's prison? 

How did he manage to equip the expedition? 

Who gave the grants? The money? 

How many families started? 

What kind of people were the settlers? 

Who came later? Why? 

Write down the topics as they arise in the discussion, changing 
them to suit the purpose of the composition, thus: 

Character of Oglethorpe 

His plan 

Condition of the poor in England 

The debtor's prison 

Grants and funds 

Character of the settlers 

The settlement 

Additions to the colony 

After a number of topics have been written in sequence upon 
the board, lead the pupils to break them up into paragraph outline. 
Add and modify as you make the outline. Direct the class as follows : 

What will you tell about first of all ? 
What should go with Oglethorpe, his plan or the prison? 
What does 'prison' go with? 
How will you place 'character of the settlers " 
Does 'grants and funds' belong to 'plan.' 'debtor's prison,' 
or ' character of the settlers ? ' 

So the first paragraph will be: 

I. Oglethorpe and his plan 

The second: 

II. The settlers. and 

III. The colony 



COMPOSITION 155 

Amplify each of these main topics, partly with the help of the 
pupils, and partly by your own additions, thus: 

I. Oglethorpe and his plan 

1. Character of Oglethorpe 

2. His plan 

Help the poor in prison 

Form a military barrier between Carolina and 
Spanish Florida , 

II. The settlers 

1. The debtor's prison 

2. Government grants and aid 

3. Character of people 

III. The colony 

1. Number of families taken 

2. Regulations of the colony 

3. New settlers. Wars 

To make the narrative more vivid, let the pupils impersonate 
either Oglethorpe himself, or a poor debtor. In such case direct the 
children as follows: 

What did you buy? 

Why couldn't you pay for it? 

Come now, pay or go to prison. Oh, that is the same story. 

Officer, carry him away. 

The outline will be somewhat as follows: 

I. Why I was thrown into prison 

1. My rent falls due 

2. The family goes hungry 

3. What I bought 

4. The baker wants his money 

The second and third paragraphs will assume somewhat the 
following form: 

II. My new start in life 

1. I am thrown into prison 

2. The prison life 

3. Oglethorpe and his plan 



156 SPECIAL METHODS 

III. Life in Georgia 

1. Fresh air once more 

2. We set sail 

3. Our new home 

4. My neighbors 

If the pupils impersonate Oglethorpe, direct them as follows: 

Now, friend Oglethorpe, stand and tell the class what you 

saw in prison. 
Was Mr. Jonathan there? How much did he owe? 
What is your plan? 
Where will you get the land? 
Where is the money coming from? 
What will the people need there? 

Outline the composition on the board, thus : 

I. The prison 

1. My visit to the prison 

2. What I see there 

3. The sad case of Mr. Jonathan 

II. My plan 

1. Where can they settle? 

2. I get land and money. 

3. Preparations 

III. The New World 

1. We set sail 

2. I am elected governor 

3. We receive new settlers 

When the pupils become poor debtors, let them choose between 
such titles, as A Debtor's Story, A New Start in Life. How I Came 
to Georgia, etc. If each pupil takes the part of Oglethorpe, give 
such titles as, How T Founded Georgia, A Plan to Aid the Poor 
Debtors, The Old and the New, etc, To assist the pupils in expres- 
sion, write the more difficult words and expressions on the board as 
follows : 

I. Oglethorpe 

man of prominence, distinguished Englishman, etc. 
sympathy with the poor, feeling for the debtors, etc. 
help, aid, assist, encourage, do good to, etc. 
plan, object, idea, scheme, etc. 



COMPOSITION 157 

II. debtor, misery, persecution, starvation, troubles, etc. 
character, workingmen, farmers, large family, etc. 
plan, charter, etc. 

III. founding, settlement, establishment, colonisation, etc. 
regulations, government, laws, rules, directions, etc. 
settlers, immigrants, newcomers, others, friends and 
relatives, etc. 

Write down these words and expressions as they arise in the 
discussion and oral work. 

After the discussion and oral work, reinforce the narrative as 
interpreted by the pupils by presenting the following models : 

In America there are fertile lands sufficient to subsist 
all the useless poor in England, and distressed Protestants 
in Europe; yet thousands starve for want of sustenance. 
The distance makes it difficult to get thither. The same 
want that renders men useless here, prevents their paying 
their passage ; and if others pay it for them, they become 
servants, or rather slaves for years to those Who have de- 
frayed the expense. Therefore, money for passage is nec- 
essary, but it is not the only want; for if people were set 
down in America, and the land before them, they must cut 
down trees, build houses, fortify towns, dig and sow the 
land before they can get in a harvest; and till then, they 
must be provided with food, and kept together, that they 
may be assistant to each other for their natural support 
and protection. 

The above is from Oglethorpe's own 'Brief Account' given by Hart 
in his American History Told by Contemporaries. The following, 
from the same source, is a quotation from the Charter : 

His Majesty having taken into his consideration, the 
miserable circumstances of many of his own poor subjects, 
poor foreigners, who would take refuge here from persecu- 
tion ; and having a princely regard to the great danger the 
southern frontiers of South Carolina are exposed to, by 
reason of the small number of white inhabitants there, 
hath, out of his fatherly compassion towards his subjects, 
been graciously pleased to grant a charter for incorpor- 
ating a number of gentlemen by the name of The Trustees 
for establishing the Colony of Georgia in America. They 
are empowered to collect benefactions, and lay them out 



158 SPECIAL METHODS 

in clothing, arming, sending over, and supporting colonies 
of the poor, whether subjects or foreigners, in Georgia. 

The following passages from Pickwick Papers will give an idea 
of a debtor's prison: 

1. The coach having turned into a very dark and 
narrow street, stopped before a house with iron bars to 
all the windows; the door-posts of which were graced by 
the name and title of 'Namby, Officer to the Sheriffs of 
London. ' 

2. ' ' My friend, ' ' said Mr. Pickwick, ' ' you don 't really 
mean to say that human beings live down in those wretched 
dungeons ? ' ' 

"Don't I!" replied Mr. Roker, with indignant aston- 
ishment;, "why shouldn't I?" 

"Live! — 'live down there!" exclaimed Mr. Pickwick. 

' ' Live down there ! Yes, and die down there, too, very 
often!" replied Mr. Roker: "and what of that? Who's 
got to say anything against it ? Live down there ! — yes, 
and a very good place to live in, isn't it?" 

The place was intolerably dirty, and the smell of 
tobacco-smoke perfectly suffocating. There was a perpet- 
ual slamming and banging of doors as the people went in 
and out ; and the noise of their voices and footsteps echoed 
and re-echoed through the passages constantly. 

As he sat down at the foot of the little iron bedstead, 
he began to wonder how long he would have to stay. He 
grew conscious that he was getting sleepy, whereupon he 
leisurely undressed himself, got into bed, and fell asleep. 

3. "He won't be in chancery long, sir," replied Poker, 
turning his hat round, so as to get the maker's name right 
side upwards, as he looked into it. 

"You make my blood run cold," said Mr. Pickwick. 
"What do you mean?" 

"He's been a consumptive for a long time past." said 
Mr. Poker, "and he's been taken very bad in breath to- 
night. The doctor said, six months ago, that nothing but 
change of air could save him." 

"Great heaven!" exclaimed Mr. Pickwick, "has this 
man been slowly murdered by the law for six months?" 

The life of the people in Georgia is set forth in part by the 
following passage, taken from Hart's American History Told by 
Contemporaries : 

They export some corn and lumber to the West-Tndies; 

they raise some rice, and of hilt 1 are going with success into 



COMPOSITION 159 

indigo. Georgia has two towns already known in trade: 
Savanah, the capital, which stands very well for business 
about ten miles from the sea, upon a noble river of the 
name, and Augusta, which stands upon a spot of ground 
of the greateest fertility. It is so commodiously situated 
for the Indian trade, that from the first establishment of 
the colony it has been in a very flourishing condition. The 
trade in skins with the Indians is the largest we have. 
"We deal with them likewise in furs, but they are of an 
inferior sort. 

In a narrative like 'The Story of a Raindrop,' hold the 
pupils not only to the sequence of the narrative, but also to some 
degree of accuracy, thus : 

I. How I became a part of a cloud 

1. Life in the ocean 

2. I become vapor 

3. Meeting my friends in cloudland 

II. My fall 

1. We sail along the sky 

2. Our argument with the west wind 

3. He becomes cold and bitter 

III. Journey to the ocean 

1. We join hands and fall 

2. Our splash to the ground 

3. We meet again 

4. Good-bye 

Give such a composition only after the pupils, in a geography 
or nature study lesson, have learned about the formation of rain. 

Let the pupils invent as many incidents as they please. Hold 
them, however, to scientific accuracy when they deal with facts of 
nature. The following model is based on Geikie's Text-Book of 
Geology, and should be used to show the sequence in the formation 
of rain : 

The substance we term water exists on the earth in 
three well-known forms, (1) as invisible vapor, (2) as 
water, (3) as ice. Vast quantities of vapor are continually 
rising from the surface of the seas, rivers, lakes and snow- 
fields of the world. This vapor remains invisible until the 



160 SPECIAL METHODS 

air containing it is cooled down below the dew point. This 
happens when it meets a cold current of air or when it 
strikes the cold side of a mountain. At first minute par- 
ticles of vapor appear and begin to form clouds. As these 
changes take place over considerable spaces of the sky, they 
give rise to large clouds. Further condensation increases 
the size of the cloud particles and at last they fall to the 
earth as rain. In many places it falls to the earth and 
sinks underground to gush forth again in springs. In other 
places it pours down the slopes of the land, swelling the 
brooks and torrents, which, fed by both springs and rains, 
gather into broader and yet broader rivers that bear the 
accumulated drainage of the land into the sea. Thence 
once more the vapor rises, condensing into clouds and rain 
to feed the innumerable water channels by which the land 
is furrowed from the mountain-top to the seashore. 

3. Change of poetry to prose. Use either a memory selection 
or a selection which the pupils can have before them in a reader or 
on a duplicated sheet. Have the class use the selection either for 
(1) direct metaphrase, (2) impersonal narration, or (3) dramatic 
impersonation. For example, take the following selection : 

Eldorado 

I. Gaily bedight, 

A gallant knight, 
In sunshine and in shadow, 

Had journeyed long, 

Singing a song, 
In search of Eldorado. 

II. But he grew old — 
This knight so bold — 

And o 'er his heart a shadow 

Fell as he found 

No spot of ground. 
That looked like Eldorado. 

III. And, as his strength 
Failed him at length, 

He met a pilgrim shadow — 

"Shadow," said he, 

"Where can it be — 
This land of Eldorado?" 



COMPOSITION 161 

IV. "Over the Mountains 
Of the Moon, 
Down the Valley of the Shadow, 
Ride, boldly ride," 
The shade replied, — 
' ' If you seek for Eldorado ! ' ' — E. A. Poe 

Develop the meaning of the selection in the manner suggested 
in the chapter on the visual appeal in reading. Ask the pupils for 
different expressions and add some yourself as follows : 

I. gaily bedight, clad in gay colors, with coat of mail 
and banner streaming, in clothes of gaudy Uue, etc. 

gallant, brave, bold, strong and cheerful, etc. 

in sunshine and in shadow, through all the world, in 
many lands, from place to place, etc. 

singing a song, careless and free, happy in his 
might, cheered with the hope of fortune, afraid of no one, 
etc. 

in search of Eldorado, seeking his fortune, hoping 
to become rich, looking for the pot of gold, etc. 

Proceed in a similar manner with the other paragraphs. En- 
courage as much diversity of expression as possible. Urge the pupils 
to vary each expression as it is written on the board. The further 
treatment of the selection will depend upon the kind of composition 
to be written. 

(a) Simple metaphrase. "With the selection before them, ask 
the pupils to change it to prose. In the lower grades have the first 
and second stanzas written in one paragraph, and the third and 
fourth stanzas written in another. If necessary aid the class by 
means of the following outline : 

1. Dress of the knight 
His journey 

His search 
Hope and failure 

2. Weakness of the knight 
Meeting with the shadow 
Question asked 
Answer of the shadow 



162 SPECIAL METHODS 

In the higher grades considerable variation may be allowed. 
Encourage the pupils to amplify descriptions and invent possible 
situations. Direct them as follows : 

How was the knight dressed ? 
What shape was his helmet? 
What weapons did he carry? 
Where did he travel? 
What people did he meet? 
What did he learn from them? 
How did he begin his search ? 

Arrange an outline like the following : 
I. The knight 

1. Dress and armor 

2. Travels 

3. What he learned 

II. Search 

1. How he set out 

2. His adventures 

3. He hears of the pot of gold 

III. Failure 

1. He travels onward 

2. His questions of travelers 

3. Meets with the pilgrim 

4. Why he returned home 

(&) Impersonal narration. Use the story as a basis. After the 
pupils have had the selection explained, remove it from their view. 
Question the pupils for the purpose of getting their interpretation 
of the piece, and of securing a title for the composition. Proceed 
somewhat as follows: 

What did the knight believe ? 
Where do you think this gold was? 

Who has heard of the 'pot of gold at the end of the rain- 
bow ? ' 
What are some of the things we would like to have? 
Can wo always get them? 

What wore some of the things the knight wanted? 
How did he try to get them? 
Where did he travel ? 



COMPOSITION 163 

For the lower grades develop an outline like the following? 

The Pot of Gold 

1. The poor knight 

Some of the things he wanted 
Search for gold 

2. His journey • 

• Some of the things he found 
What he didn't find 
Why he could not get the pot of gold 

For the higher grades aid the pupils in forming the following 

outline : * 

A Poor Man's Wish 

I. Mr. James Reynolds 

1. Daily work 

2. His family 

3. What he wanted 

II. His search 

1. Studies in night school 

2. Studies in the factory while at work 

3. Questions asked 

III. His failure 

1. Salary not raised 

2. Increased cost of living 

3. What he found better than money 

4. Money not all. Other good things. 

(c) Dramatic impersonation. In the lower grades keep fairly 
close to the story of the poem. Lead the pupils to take the personal 
attitude as follows: 

Let me see who can make the best knights. 
Step up, Henry. Get on your horse. 
Hold your lance right. Put on your helmet. 
Now tell the class what you have heard. 

Have several pupils march round as knights. Let them search 
round. Let them show weariness. Have a pilgrim come, etc. 
Develop the following outline : 



164 SPECIAL METHODS 

My Search for Gold 

1. I hear of a gold mine 
I fit myself out 

My armor and horse 
I set out 

2. My travels 
People I meet 

I meet the pilgrim shadow 
What he tells me 

In the higher grades lead the pupils to connect their own desires 
with the feeling of the knight. Question as follows : 

What would you like to have ? 

No, something that is very hard to get. 

Why do you want it ? 

What will you have to do to get it ? 

Make your preparations. 

When will you start? 

What do you expect to do ? 

Construct an outline on the board as follows: 

My Ambition 

I. What I hope to be 

1. Some great man 

2. Why I want to succeed 

3. What I can do now 

II. My plans 

1. What I am studying now 

2. What I hope to do later 

3. How long it will take 

III. A man 

1. My life work 

2. How I hope to improve 

3. What I expect to be at 40 

Y. Description 

1. Third and fourth years. Let the.pupils describe something 
with which they are familiar. Do not ask for more than one or two 
paragraphs. Let each pupil describe, for example, his dog or some 



COMPOSITION 165 

dog that he knows. Question the children to bring out different 
aspects, thus: 

Who has a dog ? Do you know any dog ? 

Does he come when you call him ? 

How does he come ? 

How does he show that he is pleased to see you ? 

What else does he do? 

Does he ever do anything wrong ? 

What is he like? 

Tell what he looks like, from his nose to his tail. 

Why do you life him? 



As the pupils talk, write down expressions as they arise and add 
to them as follows : 

jumping, leaping for joy, springing in the air, bounding, 

etc. 
ears down and tail wagging, head and tail keeping time, etc. 
licks my face, cuddles up to me, put his paw on my arm, etc. 



Write down topics as follows : 

My Dog 

1. How he meets me 
Some of his tricks 

2. What he looks like 
Why I like him 

After the oral work present one or more models. The following 
is based on Ernest Seton-Thompson 's 'Chink: The Development of 
a Dog, ' in Lives of the Hunted : 

Chink was just old enough to think himself a very 
remarkable little dog. So he was, but not in the way he 
fondly imagined. He was neither fierce, strong, nor swift, 
but he was one of the noisiest, best-natured, silliest pups 
that ever chewed his master's boots to bits. He could never 
be still for five minutes. He would do anything he was 
told to do except keep still. He was always trying to do 
some foolish and impossible thing. 



166 SPECIAL METHODS 

The following is based on Brown's Rah and His Friends : 

He was brindled and gray like granite. His hair was 
short, hard, and close, like a lion's. His body was thick-set, 
like a little bull. He must have been ninety pounds ' weight 
at the least. He had a large, blunt head, with a muzzle 
black as night, and a mouth blacker than any night. His 
head was scarred with the records of old wounds. And 
then that bud of a tail, about an inch long, constantly wag- 
ging from side to side. 

The following is based on London's account in The Call of the 
Wild: 

Unlike Skeet, who was wont to shove her nose under 
Thornton's hand and nudge and nudge till he petted, or 
Nig, who would stalk up and rest his great head on Thorn- 
ton's knee, Buck was content to adore at a distance. He 
would lie by the hour, eager, alert, at Thornton 's feet, look- 
ing up into his face, dwelling upon it, studying it, following 
with keenest interest each fleeting expression, every move- 
ment or change of feature. Sometimes he would lie farther 
away, to the side or rear, watching the outlines of the man 
and the occasional movements of his body. 

Do not attempt any formal study of the model. Use it simply 
to aid the pupils in getting started in their composition and to give 
them an idea how others treat' the same subject matter. Keep 
models in mind as you question the pupils so that there may be some 
correspondence between the compositions of the pupils and the 
models presented. 

A more systematic description is possible with a topic like ' Our 
Classroom. ' Fix some point of view from which the room is to be 
described. Then indicate the order in which the description is to be 
made. Question as follows : 

Where can you see the whole room, sides, top, floor back? 

Suppose you stand at the door? 

Now tell what the walls look like. The ceiling? 

Where is the board? Where are the windows. 1 

How are the walls decorated? 

Now tell what is in the room. 

How are the seats arranged? 

What is on them? Where is the desk? 

What do yon like most about the room? 



COMPOSITION 167 

Write down descriptive words and phrases as they arise in the 
discussion : 

look around, stare ahead of me, observe the room, etc. 

pale green, lighter than the grass in the park, 

dirty yellow, looking as if it never had been washed, 

cracked and marked, like the face of a wrinkled hag, 

like a barn, without color or art, etc., etc. 

a long, oblong window with dirty panes, 

one window in the rear, a pane out and another cracked, etc. 

Call attention to special features. Pause at parts of the room 
and ask for different expressions to describe the color, size, position, 
kind of dirt spot, what the molding reminds one of, and the like. 
Indicate the general order of the description by an outline like the 
following : 

1. The walls and the ceiling 
"What is on the walls 

2. The floor and the desks 
Other things in the room 
What I like in the room 

Lead the pupils to compare the classroom with some other room, 
described, for example, by the following, taken from Johnson's The 

Country School: 

The room was plain and bare — no pictures, no maps, 
not even a blackboard. The walls were sheathed with 
wooden panels, but the ceiling was plastered. On each side, 
to the north and south, was a window, and at the back two. 
The fireplace was on the fourth side, projecting into the 
room. To the right of it was the entrance, and to the left 
was a door opening into a dark closet containing pegs for 
the girls to hang their things on, and a bench where they 
set their dinner baskets. 

A single continuous line of desks ran around three 
sides of the room, leaving an open space next the wall along 
which the scholars walked when they went to their places. 
The seat accompanying this long desk was also continuous, 
and the scholars were obliged to step over it before being 
seated. Both seat and desk were raised on a little platform 
a few inches above the level of the floor. On the front of 
the desk was another seat, low down, for the smaller chil- 



168 SPECIAL METHODS 

dren. They could use the desk for a back, but had no desk 
themselves, while the older children had the desk, but no 
back. In the open space, in front, was the teacher's table, 
and on it two or three books, an ink bottle and quills, a lot 
of copy books, and a ruler. 

A little more feeling is infused in Dickens' account in David 
Copperfield : 

I gazed upon the schoolroom into which he took me. 
I see it now. A long room, with three long rows of desks. 
and six of forms, and bristling all around with pegs for 
hats and slates. Scraps of old copy-books and exercises 
litter the dirty floor. Some silkworms' houses, made of the 
same materials, are scattered over the desks. A bird in a 
cage, very little bigger than himself, makes a mournful 
rattle now and then in hopping to his perch, two inches 
high, or dropping from it; but neither sings nor chirps. 
There is a strange unwholesome smell upon the room, like 
mildewed corduroys, sweet apples wanting air, and rotten 
books. There could not be more ink splashed about, if it 
had been roofless from its first construction, and the skies 
had rained, snowed, hailed, and blown ink through the 
varying seasons of the year. 

. 2. Fifth through eighth years. With the pupils of the higher 
grades use a topical outline. Choose a subject which will rouse some 
interest. With a topic like 'My Classmate,' direct the pupils as 
follows : 

Who is your friend in the class ? 
How did you first meet him ? 
What does he look like? 
Describe his general expression? 
What color are his hair, eyes? 
How does he dress? 
How does he act? 

As the pupils give descriptions outline the composition: 

I. My classmate 

1. How I met him 

2. What he looks like 

3. His general character 



COMPOSITION 169 

II. His dress 

1. General neatness, as, collar, tie, shoes, 

hair, etc. 

2. How he takes care of his appearance 

III. His actions 

1. What he does at home 

2. Actions on the street 

3. Why I like him 

Write several introductory sentences as they are given. Call 
for others. Modify them as you write them on the board, thus : 

Last year when I first came to school I could not find my 

way. 
One of the finest boys I know is, etc. 
If you should meet me on the street at any time. 
I sit next to a boy named . 

Write down descriptive phrases as they arise, as follows : 

long, lank and hungry looking, 

long and straight, like a pine tree, 

well built, solid, short and heavy, 

smiling eyes, eyes bubbling with fun, eyes honest and true, 

brown, curly hair, brown shiny hair, thick black hair 

Show how other boys and girls have been described by present- 
ing models. When the pupils are about through with the oral work, 
introduce a model description or two. The following are from Wash- 
ington Irving 's Legend of Sleepy Hollow : 

He was tall, but exceedingly lank, with narrow shoul- 
ders, long arms and legs, hands that dangled a mile out of 
his sleeves, feet that might have served for shovels, and his 
whole frame most loosely hung together. His head was small 
and flat at the top, with huge ears, large green glassy eyes, 
and a long snipe nose, so that it looked like a weather-cock, 
perched upon his spindle neck, to tell which way the wind 
blew. To see him striding along the profile of a hill on a 
windy day, with his clothes bagging and fluttering about 
him, one might have mistaken him for the genius of famine 
descending upon the earth, or some scarecrow eloped from 
a cornfield. 

He was broad-shouldered and double-jointed, with a 
short curly black hair, and a bluff, but not pleasant counte- 



170 SPECIAL METHODS 

nance, having a mingled air of fun and arrogance. He was 
always ready for either a fight or a frolic; but had more 
mischief than ill-will in his composition; and, with all his 
overbearing roughness, there was a strong dash of waggish 
good humor at bottom. In cold weather he was distin- 
guished by a fur cap, surmounted with a flaunting fox's 
tail. The neighbors looked upon him with a mixture of 
awe, admiration, and good will; and when any madcap 
prank, or rustic brawl, occurred in the vicinity, always 
shook their heads, and warranted Brom Bones was at the 
bottom of it. 

She was a blooming lass of fresh eighteen ; plump as a 
partridge ; ripe and melting and rosy cheeked as one of her 
father's peaches, and universally famed for her beauty and 
good nature. She was withal a little of a coquette, as might 
be perceived even in her dress, which was a mixture of 
ancient and modern fashions, as most suited to set off her 
charms. She wore ornaments of pure yellow gold, which > 
her great-great-grandfather had brought over from Saar- 
dam ; the tempting stomacher of the olden time ; and withal 
a provoking] y short petticoat, to display the prettiest foot 
and ankle in the country round. 

The following is a more ambitious model taken from Meredith's 

The Egoist : 

She had the mouth that smiles in repose. The lips 
met full on the center of the bow and thinned along to a 
lifting dimple ; the eyelids also lifted slightly at the outer 
corners and seemed, like the lip into the limpid cheek, 
quickening up the temples, as with a run of light, or the 
ascension indicated off a shoot of color. Her features were 
playfellows of one another, none of them pretending to 
rigid correctness, nor the nose to the ordinary dignity of 
governess among merry girls, despite which the nose was 
of fair design, not acutely interrogative or inviting to gam- 
bols. She had a pure, smooth-white face, tenderly flushed 
in the cheeks, where the gentle dints were tenderly inter- 
melting even during quietness. Her eyes were brown, set 
well between mild lids, often shadowed, not un wakeful. 
Her hair of lighter brown, swelling above her temples on 
the sweep to the knot, imposed the triangle of the fabulous 
Maid woodland visage from brow to mouth and chin. Her 
face was not significant of a tameless wildness or of weak- 
ness; her equable mouth threw its long curve to guard the 
small round chin from that effect. Her eyes wavered only 



COMPOSITION 171 

in humor. They were steady when thoughtfulness was 
awakened; and at such seasons the build of her winter- 
beechwood hair lost the touch of nymph-like and whimsical, 
and strangely, by mere outline, added to her appearance of 
studious concentration. 

Bring out orderly description of incidents in a fire as follows: 

Who has seen a big fire? 

How did you know there was a fire? 

Was there any noise? 

What were some of the things that cause the noise and 

excitement ? 
How did the people on the sidewalk behave? 
Were there any police there? What did they do? 
Were there any people in the burning building? 
What did they do ? 
How did the firemen work the hose ? 

Outline the series of incidents as follows : 

I. How I came to the fire 

1; I am sent on an errand 

2. I see a crowd running 

3. I follow and come to the fire 

II. What I see and hear there 

1. What I see on the street 

2. What I see in the building 

3. The fire engines 

III. How the fire is put out 

1. Playing the hose in the front 

2. Over the elevated tracks 

3. How the fire dies down 

As in the case of the preceding compositions, question pupils 
for introductory sentences and for descriptive expressions. Write 
them on the board, thus : 

rush, roar, noise, excitement, uproar, etc. 

crowd of people, scurrying men and women, large number, 

etc. 
struggle, push, forge ahead, run wildly on, etc. 
shrieking, screaming, shouting, crying aloud, etc. 
drag, pull, push through, labor with, etc. 



172 SPECIAL METHODS 

Present an interesting description of some fire. The following 
is taken from Bits' Children of the Tenements: 

The rush and roar, the blaze and the wild panic of a 
great fire filled Twenty-third Street. Helmeted men 
stormed and swore; horses tramped and reared; crying 
women, hurrying hither and thither, stumbled over squirm- 
ing hose on street and sidewalk. Firemen and policemen 
stumbled against the crowd with angry words, stopped and 
pushed the people back. 

From the tenements next door men and women dragged 
bundles and feather beds, choking stairs and halls, and 
shrieking madly to be let out. The police struggled angrily 
with the torrent. The lodgers in the Holly-Tree Inn, who 
had nothing to save, ran for their lives. In the rear of the 
building the toppling wall swayed a moment and fell with 
a crash. 

Fire bells rang in every street as engines rushed from 
north to south. A general alarm had called out the re- 
serves. Every hydrant for blocks around was tapped. The 
throbbing of a dozen engines merged all other sounds in its 
frantic appeal for haste. Engine crews climbed upon the 
track of the elevated road, picketed the surrounding tene- 
ments, and stood their ground on the roof tops. Each hose 
threw a stream as big as a man's thigh. Half a dozen were 
soon playing steadily upon the front of the burning build- 
ing. Two streams found their way over the elevated tracks 
through the hose that had been pulled aloft there. The 
resistless streams washed down brick and stone into the 
yard as upon the wave of a mighty flood. Within the build- 
ing was soon an ample lake filled with hissing embers. The 
fire was out, the firemen going home. 

VI. Exposition 

Proceed with exposition in much the same manner as that sug- 
gested for narration. Hold the pupils to the sequence of actions, or 
parts. Take subjects which are near to the lives of the children. In 
addition to an outline make a diagram or drawing on the board if 
necessary. Select some topic like, 'How We Build a Snow House.' 
Question as follows : 

Who has ever built a snow house? 
What tools did you use? 
How did you begin ? 



COMPOSITION 173 

Who helped you? What did they do? 

How big did you make the house? 

How did you finish it ? What did you put inside ? 

As the pupils relate their experiences write a series of topics on 
the board : 

The snow storm 

We have a snow fight 

Jack suggests we build a fort 

Getting the tools 

How we borrow from Mr. Jones 

Getting to work. The bottom caves in 

Beginning again 

Building the walls 

Freezing the snow 



Have the pupils group the topics for paragraph structure, thus : 

What shall we use for the first paragraph? 

Which comes first, planning the work or getting the cools ? 

Where would we place the topic, ' Getting the tools ? ' 

In what paragraph will the work of finishing be explained? 

Who can outline the first paragraph? 



Modify and add to what the pupils give. Arrange the topics some- 
what as follows: 

1. The snow storm 

1. It snows 

2. The snow fight 

3. Jack's idea 

2. Building the fort 

i 1. We borrow the tools 

2. Laying the foundation 

3. Putting up the walls 

3. Finishing the fort 

1. Packing the snow 

2. Freezing the snow with water 

3. Ornamenting the inside 



174 



SPECIAL METHODS 



After the oral work and discussion introduce a model. Make 
the following diagrams on the board and explain how the snow 

house is built : 




In addition present the following account, based on Boas' 'The 
Central Eskimo,' in the Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 
1884-1885 : 

Two men unite in building a house, the one cutting the 
blocks, the other building. At first a row of blocks is put 
up in a circle, the single pieces being slanted so as to fit 
closely together. Then the first block is cut down to the 
ground and the top of the row is slanted so as to form one 
thread of a spiral line. The builder places the first block 
of the second row with its narrow side upon the last block 
and pushes it with his left hand to the right so that it 
touches the last block of the first row. Thus the snow block, 
which is inclined a little inward, has a support on two sides. 
Every block is inclined a little more inward than the pre- 
vious one, and as the angle to the vertical becomes greater 
the blocks are only kept in their places by the neighboring 
ones. 



The following is another account given by "Ratzel in his History 
of Mankind : 

The snow huts are built as follows: From the hard 
surface of the snow, which storms have bound fast and 
close, they cut blocks 16 inches square and 6 inches thick. 
These are laid in one spirally-ascending course, so as to form 
a dome-shaped vault. Two such domes side by side repre- 
sent the entrance hall (where the dogs are kept) and the 
dwelling room ; while a third serves to keep utensils in. A 
gallery excavated in the snow serves for entrance, and a 



COMPOSITION 175 

slab of snow closes the door. With an exterior height of 
somewhat over 8 feet a man of average stature has room to 
stand upright ; and the outside is made smooth and tight by 
plastering with snow. 

With a subject like, 'How I Made Coffee,' proceed in a similar 
manner. Question and direct as follows : 

Suppose now that no one is home, and there is no coffee 

ready. How will you begin? 
Where do you keep the coffee? 
What else do you need ? 
What will you do now? 
How will you fix the coffee for the boiling water ? 

Write down topics on the board as the pupils explain : 

I am left alone 
No coffee in the house 
I get the water ready 
How I prepare the coffee 
I set the table 

Then lead the children to arrange the topics in the proper 
sequence, thus : 

I. Minding the house 

1. Why my mother left me alone 

2. I wish to surprise mother 

3. Getting the material 

II. Cooking the coffee 

1. I get the water ready 

2. I prepare the coffee 

3. Boiling the coffee 

III. I surprise mother 

1. I set the table 

2. Arranging the cups, etc. 

3. Mother comes 

When the children are ready to write introduce some model to 
show how others prepare coffee. The following is from Du Chaillu's 
Land of the Long Night : 



176 SPECIAL METHODS 

Two women went out and collected a lot of snow, which 
they put on to melt in a big iron pot hanging over the fire. 
This is the way the Lapps have to do to procure water. 
When the snow had melted she put the water in a coffee 
kettle that had a spout. One of the women ground coffee in 
a mill. Then the ground coffee was put into the kettle and 
left to boil for quite a while, the woman watching it, taking 
off the pot when it was about to boil over, and then putting 
it on the fire again. The third woman was attending to the 
cups and saucers. When the coffee was ready they put in 
a little bit of salt to give it a flavor, then set the kettle on 
the ground and put into it a small piece of dried fishskin 
to clarify it and precipitate the grounds at the bottom of 
the kettle. 

When the coffee was ready to be poured, one of the 
women went out and came back with reindeer milk which 
had remained frozen for over three months. Then the 
coffee was served. The wife bit off several pieces of rock 
candy from a big lump, to sweeten each cup of coffee, and 
after putting in frozen reindeer milk with a spoon, licked 
it with her tongue. We had silver spoons, round in shape, 
with twisted handles. After coffee, men, women and the 
young girls filled their pipes and had a good smoke. 

If necessary, write an account of how to make coffee as explained 
in a standard cook book. Wherever possible, lend some interest to 
the exposition by surrounding it with a story. Instead of a bare 
'How to Make Coffee' present a story which deals with the making 
of coffee, as in the case of the above. Dramatic impersonation will 
add interest. 

VII. Letters 

Make the writing of letters as real as possible. Have the pupils 
bring catalogues for price lists, let them cut up newspapers for 
advertisements, let them return, order, or write complaints about 
things used in the school or classroom, as, desks, pads, pens, books, 
and the like. Direct them by writing an appropriate outline on the 
board : 

(a) Asking for a position 

Who I am, boy, girl, age 
What I can do 
What I am willing to do 
References 



COMPOSITION 177 

(&) Asking for price lists, etc. 

Request 

Specify kind, date, etc. 

Thanks 

(c) Ordering goods 

Specify kind, quality, amount, etc. 
Specify where to send, how to send, etc. 
Thanks 

(d) Complaints, etc. 

Specify what was ordered, kind, quality, 

amount, etc. 
Specify what was received, time, condition, 

amount, etc. 
Regrets 

Let the pupils dramatise the situation. Direct them as follows : 

Here now, John, you will have to go to work. Get the 

paper. 
Look up some of the advertisements. Read one out. 

Mr. Smith, let me see that book that was ordered. 
Look at the condition of that book. When did it come ? 
Write to the publishers. Tell them what is the matter 
with it. 

We need some more paper. What kind do you want ? 

How much is it ? Look up the price list. 

Write and order 10 dozen packages. 

Tell them when we want it and where to send it. 

Deal with the content of social letters as in the case of narra- 
tion, description, or exposition. Let the pupils write to their friends 
in the classroom. Pair them off and let one write to the other. Get 
a list of the names of the pupils in another class and have the pupils 
write to the children of the other class. Let the pupils write invita- 
tions to their friends and parents for receptions, meetings, visits, etc. 



CHAPTER VIII 
COMPOSITION — VISUAL (Concluded) 

I. Use of the Model 

Use the model simply as an aid to expression. See that it corre- 
sponds closely with what the pupils are ready to express. Do not 
introduce any model which deals with an unfamiliar subject. Let 
the pupils write on topics drawn from the history, nature study, 
reading, etc., of the grade. When the pupils are ready to take up 
composition, introduce a model which shows that some other writer 
has felt a similar need of expression, and has dealt with a topic 
much like the one in the minds of the children. At first introduce a 
model without attempting any analysis or formal study of it. Give 
it in the manner suggested in the preceding sections. After one or 
two compositions have been written let the pupils study the model 
more, closely. Of the qualities of structure, aim for unity, coherence 
and sequence. Use the model in any one of the following ways : 

(a) Immediately after the oral work and before the written. 
No formal study need be made. 

(b) As the basis of expression. All expression, oral and writ- 
ten, must then be based on the model. 

(c) After the first draught of the composition has been written. 
Pupils then compare their own work with the model, correct and 
amplify their copy, and then rewrite, making whatever changes and 
improvements the study of the model has suggested. 

II. Reproduction 

Third and fourth years (a) Narration 
Hercules' First Task 

The first task was to kill a great lion. This fierce 
animal lived in a forest. He robbed the people of their 
cattle. He was so strong that lie could kill a man with one 
blow of his huge paw. When he roared, the sound could 

]78 



COMPOSITION 179 

be heard many miles away. He was a monster with a hide 
so tough that no sword could pierce it. 

' For several days Hercules searched for this lion, and 
at last found him. He pulled up a young oak tree by the 
roots, and with it drove the beast into a cave. Following 
in boldly, he choked him to death. Then he threw the 
carcass over his shoulders, and carried it to his master. 

From The Progressive Uoad to Beading. Book 3, 
By G. Burchill, W. L. Ettinger, and E. D. Shimer 

Have this model written on the board. If the children have 
the story in their readers, let them have their books open before 
them. Question as follows to bring out the sequence of the story: 

What was the first task? 

Where was the lion? What did he do? 

Why were the people afraid of him? 

How did Hercules find him? 

What did he do? 

Show how these topics are grouped, as follows : 

What does the first paragraph tell us? 
How do we know that the lion was strong? 
What does the second paragraph tell us? 
How many things did he do? Name them. 

Arrange the paragraphs, as follows : 

1 . The lion 
What he did 

What kind of an animal he was 

2. How Hercules found the lion 
What he did 

How he killed the lion 

Bring out the different expressions possible by the following 
questions : 

Why was the lion called a fierce animal? 

What else can we call him? 

What does 'robbed' mean? 

Read the third sentence and use other words. 

How else can we say he was heard 'many miles away?' 



180 SPECIAL METHODS 

Add to the expressions which the children give and write them 
on the board : 

1. the first task, what he had to do first, his first great 

labor, etc. 
fierce animal, terrible animal, animal which frightened 

every one, etc. 
he was so strong, his strength was so great, he was so 

powerful, etc. 
many miles away, a great distance, from afar, far, far 

away, etc. 
pierce, go through, cut, hurt, wound, etc. 

2. searched, tried to find, hunted for, sought etc. 
pulled up a young tree, took a tree and tore it from the 

earth, etc. 
drove the beast, faced the animal and made him retreat, 

etc. 
boldly, without fear, bravely, etc. 
carcass, dead body, body of the lion, etc. 

After the discussion, after the topics have been developed and 
written on the board, and after the different expressions have been 
given, let the children tell the story orally, without the model. 
Either cover the model or erase it. Let the written work then follow. 
Encourage the children to vary the expressions as much as possible. 
Tell them to keep to the sentences which outline the paragraphs, 
and let them know that they may, if necessary, use any of the ex- 
pressions written on the board. It may be necessary to emphasise 
the fact that the paragraph is indented, that the sentence begins 
with a capital, and that it ends with a period. In the model make 
the periods and capitals extra heavy for this purpose. 

(6) Description 

The Farm in Lapland 

The Lapp's farm had three buildings. There were on 
this farm three diminutive cows, an ox of the size of the 
cows, nine sheep, and they owned besides quite a number 
of reindeer. The cows were getting smaller and smaller 
as I went north. In the little dwelling-honse was a small 
room for a stranger; reindeer skins made the mattress. 
My guide and T ate together. We had excellent coffee, 
smoked reindeer meat, and milk. 



COMPOSITION 181 

Further on we stopped awhile at a little farm owned 
by a woman and her daughter. The mother and daughter 
worked as if they were men ; they fished for salmon in the 
river in summer, mowed hay, collected reindeer moss to 
to feed their cows, went after wood. A faithful dog was 
their companion. At some seasons the daughter descended 
the river, and engaged herself as one of the crew on board 
of a fishing boat on the Arctic Ocean. 

From The Land of the Long Night 

By Paul Du Chaillu 

Bring out the different expressions as follows : 

Name the animals mentioned in the first paragraph. 

Name them again, telling what kind they are. 

What other words can you use for ' diminutive ? ' 

Read the second sentence and begin with the names of the 

animals. 
Change the order and the words in the third sentence. 

As the pupils give them write down the different expressions : 

diminutive, puny, very small, very little, etc. 
getting smaller and smaller, became smaller in size, etc. 
the mattress was made of reindeer skins, a reindeer mat- 
tress was on the floor, etc. 
are together, at at the same table, I ate with my guide, etc. 



Question the pupils for the point of view: 



"Where is the writer when he tells of the animals? 
Where is he when he tells of the inside of the house? 
Does he stay there? How do you know? 
Did the writer stay at the next farm ? Did he eat there ? 
What do you think he did there? 

Develop the order of description as follows : 

The writer is traveling. What does he see? 
He goes inside the house. What does he see? 
He goes on further. What does he see? 
Does he stay? What does he ask the woman? 
What does he find out? 
Now, what shall we tell in the first paragraph ? 



182 SPECIAL METHODS 

The two things are: 

1. The farm animals 
The farm building 

For the second paragraph we have : 

2. Another farm 
The inhabitants 

With the model removed from view, but with the outline and. 
expressions on the board, let pupils reconstruct the description 
their own. 

(c) Letters 

218 East 98 Street, 
New York, June 5. 1912. 

Dear Miss Smith, 

Please to excuse my son George for his 
absence yesterday afternoon. I had to go down town, and 
there was no one to mind the baby. I thank you for your 
courtesy, and am, 

Very truly yours, 

M. Fredericks. 

Write the model on the board. Question as follows : 

What kind of paper should you use? 

Here are some of the notes I have received. Are they 

written on the right kind of paper? What is the 

matter with the edges? 
Next time you are absent, bring in notes like the one on 

the board. Suppose you have to write one for your 

brother. Yes, let your mother sign it. 
What do you put on the first line ? The second \ 
Where is the first comma? 
Why do you not sign 'Sincerely?' 
When would you sign 'Sincerely?' 

Rub out the body of the letter. Have the pupils read a few 
letters as much like the original as possible. Let them then write 
a note of excuse. Do not attempt anything very ambitious. Aim 
for clear, short statements. Proceed in a similar manner with a 
letter of the following kind : 



COMPOSITION 183 

280 East 88 Street, 

New York, June 28, 1912. 

Dear Josie, 

Could you come to our entertainment on Friday 
afternoon ? We should be so glad to have you. You know I 
am going to graduate and mother is giving a small party. 
There will be singing and dancing, and I can promise yon 
a good time. 

Sincerely your friend. 

E. Thaxter. 
2. Fifth through eighth years 

(a) Narration 

The Discovery of Gold 

As Marshall was working in a ditch near Captain 
Sutter's sawmill, he observed particles of yellow metal 
which he gathered up in his hand. It seemed suddenly to 
flash across his mind that it was gold. After picking up 
about an ounce he hurried down to the fort to report to 
Captain Sutter his discovery. It was in February or 
March, 1848. As Sutter was sitting in the fort lie heard 
a knock at his door and said, "Come in." In walked 
Marshall, who was a half-crazy man at best, but who then 
looked strangely wild. "What is the matter, Marshall ?" 
asked Captain Sutter. Marshall inquired if any one was 
within hearing, and began to peer about the room and look 
under the bed. Sutter, fearing that some calamity had 
befallen the party at the sawmill, and that Marshall was 
really crazy, began to make his way to the door. At the 
same time he demanded that Marshall explain what was 
the matter. At last he revealed his discovery and laid 
before Captain Sutter the pellicles of gold he had picked 
up in the ditch. 

Marshall returned to the mill, but could not keep out 
of his wonderful ditch. By some means the other men 
employed there learned his secret. Then they wanted 
to gather the gold, but Marshall threatened to shoot them 
if they attempted it. .These men had sense enough to 
know that if placer mining existed at Coloma, it would 
also be found farther down-stream. They gradually pros- 
pected till they reached Mormon Island, fifteen miles below. 
Here they discovered one of the richest placers on earth. 
They revealed the fact to some other Mormons who were 
employed by Captain Sutter, and so the news spread. 



184 SPECIAL METHODS 

As the spring and summer of 18-10 advanced the 
reports came faster and faster from the gold mines at 
Sutter's sawmill. Stories reached us of fabulous discov- 
eries, and spread throughout the land. Everybody was 
talking of 'Gold! Gold!' Some of the soldiers began to 
desert. Citizens were fitting out trains of wagons and 
pack-mules to go to the mines. We heard of men earning 
fifty, five hundred, and thousands of dollars a day. For 
a time it seemed as if somebody would reach solid gold. 
From Memoirs of Gen. W. T. Sherman 

Write the above model on the board or give it out on dupli- 
cated sheets. At least put the most important parts before the 
pupils and fill in with story and explanation. Develop the topip 
sentences and the further amplifications of the topic sentence, as 
follows : 

Read over the first paragraph carefully. 

Who is the person of account in that paragraph? 

Put into one sentence what he does. 

Take the topic, 

1. What Marshall discovered 

Tell where he was working. 

How did he come to find the gold? 

What did he do then? 

Was he excited? How did he show it? 

The first paragraph will be, 

T. What Marshall discovered 

1. Work at the sawmill 

2. Finding gold 

3. What Marshall did with it 

In a similar manner bring out the topics oP the other paragraphs: 

TT . Further discoveries 

1. Other men find gold 

2. What they do 

3. The report spreads 

TTT. The gold fever 

1. Reports from Sutter's sawmill 

2. What people do 

3. Wild rumors 



COMPOSITION L85 

In the oral work have the pupils express the same thought in 
different ways. Write down these expressions on the board or have 
the pupils copy them on trial sheets. Some of these expressions 
will be: 

In 1849 gold was discovered in California. 

It was by the merest accident that gold was discovered. 

In a ditch at Sutter's sawmill, a man named Marshall, etc. 

It flashed across his mind that it was gold. 

There it was, pure, virgin gold. 

He felt his fortune was made. It whs gold. 

He looked strangely wild. 

A wild excitement seemed to burst from his every pore. 

He had never acted so strangely before. 

He was quivering with excitement. 

Treat each of the paragraphs in this manner. The pupils will 
then be ready for more coherent oral work and for written compo- 
sition. 

(6) Description 

An Indian Teepee 

In times of prosperity the Indian teepees are by no 
means unsightly. They are of caribou skin stretched 
around and to within about three feet of the top of the 
poles, which number according to the size of the Lodge. 
The sides of the circle are banked up with snow and pine- 
brush, and inside the smallest brush makes a clean-looking 
and pleasantly smelling floor. The open fire occupies the 
center, and above it, stretching from side to side of the 
lodge, are poles upon which the meat is placed to thaw, and 
from which the kettles are suspended. 

Domestic economies are a dead letter in the Indian 
household. There is no place for' any particular thing, 
and nothing is ever in any particular place. The back 
part of the lodge, where it is too cold to sit even when 
the fire blazes highest, appears to be the general store- 
room. Everything not in immediate use is thrown there 
in indiscriminate confusion. If the squaw has finished 
stripping a caribou leg of its meat, she tosses the bone 
over her shoulder into the unknown behind her: if she 
has completed the lacing of a snow-shoe, it is served simi- 
larly. The Indian hurls his knife there when he is through 
with it, and the children do the same with the bones or 



186 SPECIAL METHODS 

intestines or bits of meat they may have filched from the 
feasting, in which they never share. And when there is 
a demand for anything, such an overhauling ensues as 
would put to shame a May-day house-cleaning. 

From C. Whitney's On Snow Shoes to the Barren Grounds, 
In Herbertson's Descriptive Geography of North America 

Present the model. Bring out the point of view as follows : 

Is the writer inside or outside of the teepee? 

What expressions in the first paragraph tell you he is 

inside ? 
What does the first paragraph deal with? 
From what part of the teepee does the description begin? 
Where does the description stop? 
Name the parts in the order of their description. 
What is the topic of the second paragraph? 
What details are given to amplify this topic? 
Give the subtopics. 

As the pupils answer, arrange the topics and subtopics as follows : 
I. The teepee 

1. Outside 

2. Supports 

3. Things inside 

II. Household economy 

1. Lack of order within 

2. How the women keep things 

3. How the men and children keep things 

Secure different expressions and phrases, thus : 

State the first sentence differently. 

What other word can be used for unsightly? 

Begin the second sentence with the words 'Around and 

to within.' 
What kind of a floor is there? 

In the oral work have the pupils express the same tiling in a 
number of different ways. Write down some of the expressions on 
the board, thus: 

unsightly, ugly, without taste, etc. 

stretched around, surrounding, covering, letting pole-ends 
peep out, etc. 



COMPOSITION 



187 



very attractive floors, made pleasant with, cleanly and 

wholesome with pine-brush, etc. 
occupies the center, in the center is, throws its heat from 

the center of the tent, etc. 

Let the pupils follow the outline and make use of any of the 
expressions they choose. 

(c) Exposition 




S is a hollow tube which dips into a body of water. 
P is a piston which fits into the cylinder C. 
VI is a valve which swings up. and into S. 
V2 is a valve which swings up and into C. 

When the piston is moved out, water is drawn into C 
through valve V2. Valve VI closes. When the piston is 
moved in, valve V2 closes, and the water is forced through 
valve VI and out into tube S. In this way a fire engine 
or other engine can send a continuous stream of water in 
any direction. 

Make several sketches of a pump on the board. 

Point to the parts and call upon pupils to name them. 

What is P? What is VI? Etc. 

Ask for the relative positions of the valves when the piston 

moves in? When it moves out? 
Ask pupils to make a drawing of a force pump. 



188 SPECIAL METHODS 



On their trial sheets let the pupils make a drawing of a pump 
and name the parts. With this before them have them explain the 
"working of the pump. 

Cover the model on the board and see if the pupils can set forth 
(1) the parts of the machine, and (2) the action of the parts. 



(d) Letters 



230 East 88 Street, 

New York, June 15, 1912. 



Mr. J. R. Smith, 
1238 Third Avenue, 
New York City. 

Dear Sir, 

I have read your advertisement in this morning's 
Herald. I am a boy of fourteen years, have attended 
Public School 30, and live with my parents at the above 
address. I can read well, write fluently, and am very 
good at packing, cleaning up, and arranging things. 

If you wish any references you may write to Mr. R. T. 
BroAvn, 184 East 89 Street, and to my teacher, Miss D. 
Pickett. I hope to hear from you. 

Respectfully yours, 
Thomas Dunn. 
Question as follows: 

Read the heading of the letter. 

Read the direction of the letter. 

What is the body of Jthe letter? 

Where is the conclusion? 

What facts do you wish to bring before Mr. Smith ? 

Write a social letter on the board as follows: 

230 East 88 Street, 

New York, June 15, 1912. 

Dear Annie, 

Very many thanks for your kindness in loan- 
ing me the 'Fables.' I have enjoyed your book very much 
and in its company have spent many a hot afternoon most 
pleasantly. T shall be free next week some time and hope 
to give myself the pleasure of calling on you and giving my 
thanks in person. 

Sincerely yours, 

J. R. Matthew. 



COMPOSITION 189 



Question as follows 



How does the salutation differ from that of a business 

letter? 
How does the conclusion differ? 
What are some other possible conclusions? 
Why do you write a letter of thanks? 

Write the letter to be studied on the board. Bring out its 
form and arrangement. Have pupils read the letter and change 
some of the expressions. After the oral work, cover the letter and 
let the pupils write one as much like the model as possible. 

III. Imitation 

1. Third and fourth years 

(a) Narration 

The Hunt 

Before the hunter were five grizzly bears, an old one 
and four cubs. ' ' Run for the woods. ' ' growled the mother 
grizzly, for she knew that men carried guns. She set off 
to guide them to the timber-tangle on the Lower Piney. 
But an awful, murderous fusillade began. 

"Bang!" and mother grizzly felt a deadly pang. 

"Bang!" and poor little Fuzz rolled over with a 
scream of pain and lay still. 

With a roar of hate and fury mother grizzly turned 
to attack the enemy. Bang! and she fell paralyzed and 
dying with a high shoulder shot. And the three little cubs, 
not knowing what to do, ran back to their mother. 

The Jiunter seemed pleased with what he had done. 
But away up in the woods of Anderson's Peak that night 
a little lame grizzly might have been seen wandering, limp- 
ing along, leaving a bloody spot each time he tried to set 
down his hind paw ; whining and whimpering, ' ' Mother ! 
Mother! Oh, Mother, where are you?" For he was cold 
and hungry and had a pain in his foot= But there was no 
mother to come to him, and he dared not go where he had 
left her. So he wandered aimlessly about among the pines. 

From The Biography of a Grizzly, 
By Ernest Seton-Thompson. 



190 SPECIAL METHODS 

Write the model or the greater part of it on the board. Have 
several pupils read it, paragraph by paragraph. Change the kind 
of animals in the narrative and question as follows: 

Imagine that there is a deer family. 

The bear growls. What will the mother deer do ? 

Will a little deer be called Fuzz? What will you call him ? 

Will a deer 'roar with pain and fury?' 

Will the deer turn to attack the enemy ? 

What will a deer probably do? 

Has the deer a 'paw' or a 'hoof?' 

Present a situation similar to the model, thus: 

Mother deer and four little ones 
Mother heron- and five little birds 
A rabbit and its young one 

Question the pupils in order to bring out the proper expres- 
sions to be used, the changes necessary because of the imitation, 
and the like. Let the pupils recite orally before they write. Leave 
the model before the pupils as a guide. 

(&) Description 

The Coyote 

The coyote is a long, slim, sick and sorry-looking skele- 
ton, with a gray wolf-skin stretched over it, and a tolerably 
bushy tail that forever sags down with a despairing ex- 
pression of forsakenness and misery. He has a furtive 
and evil eye, and a long, sharp face, with slightly lifted 
lip and exposed teeth. There is a general slinking expres- 
sion all over him. 

The coyote is a living, breathing allegory of Want. 
He is always hungry. He is always poor, out of luck and 
friendless. The meanest creatures despise him, and even 
the fleas would desert him for a velocipede. He is so 
spiritless and cowardly that even while his exposed teeth 
are pretending a threat, the rest of his face is apologizing 
for it. And he is so homely — so scrawny, and ribby, and 
coarse haired, and pitiful. 

From Roughing It, by Mark Twain 



COMPOSITION 191 

Bring out points of likeness or difference between the coyote 
and the animal to be described. Take, for example, the backyard 

cat: 

Is the cat long and slim? Sorry looking? 
Has it a bushy tail?^ How does it hang? 
What kind of a face has the cat? 

Describe a well-fed cat — a cat that has friends among the 
cooks. Tell about your own cat. 

In the case of the lion or tiger, the description would proceed 
along similar lines, but the expressions would be very different : 

Is the lion sick looking? What would you call him? 
What kind of a tail has he? What else has he which the 

coyote does not have? 
Has the lion a furtive eye? Describe his eye? 
Have you seen any picture of a lion? How does he stand? 

Select some topic, like 'The Backyard Cat,' 'Our Pussy,' 'The 
Yellow Dog,' 'The Lion,' etc. In the oral work bring out the 
proper expressions to be used. Leave the model before the pupils 
in both oral and written work. 

(c) Letters 

127 East 86 Street, 

New York, March 4, 1912. 

Dear Miss Jones, 

Could you kindly let William go home 
this afternoon at 2 o 'clock. His father is sick and I have to 
send him to the hospital. 

I thank you for your courtesy and am, 

Very truly yours. 
Martha Young. 

Have the pupils write letters of excuse with reasons other than 
the one given in the model letter. Question the pupils for other 
good reasons and write them on the board. Read some of the letters 
which have been received. Have the pupils give excuses for 
absence, invitations to different affairs. Leave the model on the 
board during the oral and the written work. 



192 SPECIAL METHODS 

2. Fifth through eighth years 

(a) Narration 

Hudson's Third Voyage 

Hudson was an English mariner who had made two 
voyages from England already in quest of India by way 
Of the northern seas. Not disheartened by repeated fail- 
ures, he now made a third attempt under the auspices of 
the Amsterdam directors of the Dutch East India Com- 
pany. After doubling the Cape of Norway, Hudson, find- 
ing in the ice and in the discontent of his men insuperable 
obstacles to a further progress, turned his prow toward 
America. 

Having reached the coast of Newfoundland, he sailed 
southward until he entered Delaware Bay. Then, reversing 
his course, he came in sight of the hills of Navesink, went 
in past Sandy Hook, and anchored in the lower bay of 
the future site of New York. He explored the neighbor- 
hood, and had converse with the Indians, which was gen- 
erally of 'a friendly character. Still in quest of a route 
by water to India, in the month of September, 1609, he 
sailed up the great river which was one day to bear his 
name, as far as the site of Albany. 

His appreciation of the charms of the scenery was 
enhanced by the delight natural to the discoverer whose 
eyes first beheld the noble stream and its adjacent shores, 
with their steep heights and verdant forests. He found 
the natives generally hospitable, although once he had to 
repel an attack. The reports of Hudson on his return — 
in particular, the prospect that was opened for a very 
lucrative trade with the Indians in furs — caused other 
vessels to be sent out by Amsterdam merchants on the 
same path. 

From The Colonial Era, by G. P. Fisher 

Present the model or the greater part of it on the board. If 
necessary read it. Supplement it by a reading of the account given 
by Bancroft or some other historian. Have the pupils find the 
topics and subtopics of the paragraphs as follows: 

Who is the person of account in the first paragraph .' 
What did he attempt? 

Tell about his voyage before he turned toward America. 
What made him turn south? 



COMPOSITION 193 

Look through the second paragraph. 
Name the three steps in his voyage. 
How were the Indians? 

Describe the river he discovered. 
What resulted from his discovery ? 

Have the pupils construct an outline, as follows : 

What is the main topic in the first paragraph? 
What belongs to the first paragraph? 

I. Third voyage of Hudson 

1. Who Hudson was 

2. Who sent him * 

3. Why he turned south 

i 
In a similar manner have the pupils outline the other para- 
graphs : 

II. Discovery of the Hudson 

1. Delaware Bay 

2. Lower bay of New York 

3. Hudson River 

III. Results of the discovery 

1. Impression made on Hudson 

2. Report sent back 

3. Results of report 

Ask the pupils who other discoverers were. Let them construct 
outlines similar to the above for Columbus, Cabot, Verrazzani. 
De Soto, etc. Have them use their histories so as to get the facts 
properly grouped. Have them construct outlines or give them out- 
lines like the following: 

I. Second voyage of Cabot 

1. Who Cabot was 

2. Who sent him 

3. Why he turned south 

II. Exploration of the coast 

1. Voyage to the Chesapeake 

2. What he probably saw 



194 SPECIAL METHODS 

III. Results of the voyage 

1. Comparison with voyages of Columbus, Verrazzani 

2. Later claims of the English 

With outline and model before them let the pupils recite orally,, 
give, different introductions, vary the expressions, and then write. 

(6) Description 

A Dutch Burgomaster 

The renowned Wouter (or Walter) Van Twiller was 
descended from a long line of Dutch burgomasters, who 
had successively dozed away their lives, and grown fat 
upon the bench of magistracy in Rotterdam. He was a 
man shut up within himself like an oyster, and rarely 
spoke, except in monosyllables ; but then it was allowed lie- 
seldom, said a foolish thing. So invincible was his gravity 
that he was never known to laugh or even to smile through 
the whole course of a long and prosperous life. Nay, it* a 
joke were uttered in his presence, that set light-minded 
hearers in a roar, it was observed to throw him into a state 
of perplexity. 

The person of this illustrious old gentleman was 
formed and portioned, as though it had been moulded by 
the hands of some cunning Dutch statuary, as a model of 
majesty and lordly grandeur. He was exactly five feet 
six inches in height, and six feet five inches in circumfer- 
ence. His head was a perfect sphere, and of such stupend- 
ous dimensions, that Dame Nature, with all her sex's 
ingenuity, would have been puzzled to construct a neck- 
capable of supporting it ; wherefore she wisely declined 
the attempt, and settled it firmly on the top of his backbone 
just between his shoulders. His body was oblong and par- 
ticularly capacious at bottom. His legs were short and 
sturdy in proportion to the weight they had to sustain r 
so that when erect he had not a little the appearance of a 
beer-barrel on skids. His face, that infallible index of the- 
mind, presented a vast expanse, unfurrowed by any of 
those lines and angles which disfigure the human counte- 
nance with what is termed expression. Two small grey 
eyes twinkled feebly in the midst, like two stars of lesser 
magnitude in a hazy firmament, and his full-fed cheeks, 
which seemed to have taken toll of everything that went 
into his mouth, were curiously mottled and streaked witli 
dusky red, like a spitzenberg apple. 



COMPOSITION 195 

His habits were as regular as his person. He daily 
took his four stated meals, appropriating exactly an hour 
to each. He smoked and doubted eight hours, and he slept 
the remaining twelve of the four-and-twenty. He had 
lived for years without feeling the least curiosity to know 
whether the sun revolved around the earth, or it around 
the sun. And he had watched, for at least half a century, 
the smoke curling from his pipe to the ceiling, without 
once troubling his head with any of those numerous 
theories by which a philosopher would have perplexed his 
brain, in accounting for its rising above the surrounding 
atmosphere. 

From Washington Irving 's Knickerbocker History of 
New York 

Present parts of the model on the board, or give it paragraph 
by paragraph in its entirety. Emphasize portions of the description 
by reading them. Lead the pupils to see the point of view of the 
author and the general order of his description. Have them outline 
the model somewhat as follows : 

I. General impression 
II. Detailed description of appearance 
III. Detailed description of habits 

Bring out the means by which the topics are amplified, thus : 

Give the different expressions which bring out the idea of 
gravity. 

What comparison is made, that is, 'like' what was he? 

What is his body compared to? What other comparisons 
are made? 

In the second paragraph what is the order of the descrip- 
tion? 

How many sentences and expressions are used to describe 
each part, as, 'his person,' 'his head,' etc. 

How did he spend the day ? 

Have the pupils name different characters in the neighborhood, 
as, the butcher, the baker, the grocer, the floorwalker, and the like. 
Question them on some character along the lines outlined for the 
model, thus: 



196 SPECIAL METHODS 

What is your general impression of him? 

Is he jolly, sad, slow, or what? 

What makes you think so? 

What does he usually do when you see him? 

Describe his person. 

Make comparisons, that is, 'use,' 'like.' 

Give another sentence on his hair. 

After such questioning and discussion let the pupils recite orally 
on the different topics, and then write. 

(c) Exposition 

I. Growing Seedlings 

Secure a wooden box at least six inches in depth, and 
of a convenient size to place in front of a south window, if 
you have such a window. Nearly fill the box with rich earth 
which has been finely pulverized or sifted. If possible, mix 
in thoroughly some well-rotted manure and a tablespoonful 
of prepared fertilizer. Soak your seeds for twenty-four 
hours, and plant them at a depth equal to four times the 
thickness of the seeds. Cover the seeds with dirt, press it 
down firmly, and sprinkle with water till the earth is 
thoroughly moistened to a depth of at least four inches. 
See that your garden is kept as nearly as possible at a 
temperature of 70 degrees. Add enough water day by day 
to keep the ground moist. 

II. Bulb Culture 

Few plants are easier to cultivate or give greater satis- 
faction, especially in winter, than those grown from bulbs. 
Secure a few tulip, hyacinth, or narcissus bulbs and bury 
them in pots of rich earth. Water them well and put them 
in a dark, cool place for four to six weeks, until roots 
appear through the opening at the bottom of the pot. 
Then put them in a warm, sunny place, keep them well 
watered, and the flowers will appear in a few weeks. 
From J. E. Peabody and A. E. Hunt's 

Elementary Plant Biology 

Direct and question the pupils as follows : 

Name the materials used. 
Tell what is done, step by step. 

Name some of the seeds which can be planted in the 
manner suggested. 



COMPOSITION 197 

Have the pupils select the name of some seed and tell how to 
plant it. Have them make drawings of the material and the process 
of planting. Let one pupil explain, and another do exactly as he is 
told. If possible surround the exposition with a story. Outlines 
like the following may be used : 

My Present 
I . My plan 

1. I visit my aunt 

2. I see her window boxes 

3. My idea 

II . I make a window box 

1. Material 

2. Planting the seeds 

3. I surprise mother 

III. Growth of the seeds 

1. First leaves 

2. How the plant grows 

3. Pleasure given by the box 

Our Window Box 
I. Buying seeds 

1. I go shopping 

2. Incidents on the way 

3. I get the seeds 

II. Building the box 

1. I get the wood 

2. Making the box 

3. How I got the earth 

III. Planting the seeds 

1. Choosing the seeds 

2. Planting them 

3. Waiting for the first shoot 



198 SPECIAL METHODS 

(d) Letters 

312 West 109 Street. 
New York, May 5, 1912. 

Messrs. Strong, Hyatt, and Co., 
1893 Third Avenue, 
New York. 
Gentlemen, 

The chair which you sent to me came with one 
leg broken and with the top all scratched up. I ordered 
the chair last Friday afternoon. I hope that you will 
attend to the matter, and am, 

Very truly yours, 
L. Jacobson. 

Write the letter on the board. Have the pupils write to the 
same people and complain about a table, a bookcase, etc. Have them 
complain about a book, a suit of clothing, and the like. Have them 
write a letter thanking the firm for prompt attention to the com- 
plaint, and satisfactory exchange of goods. Let them write acknowl- 
edging receipt of goods in good condition. Insist that the heading, 
direction and conclusion be arranged and punctuated exactly as the 
model. Write a social letter of invitation on the board, and have 
the pupils write invitations to similar affairs, as, dinner, birthday 
party, boat ride, etc. Restrict the pupils to some one topic. 

IV. Dramatic Impersonation 
1. Third and fourth years 

Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp 

One morning, as Aladdin shook off slumber, he called 
for somewhat of food, being sore ahungered. But, said his 
mother, "0 my son, I have no victuals for thee inasmuch 
as yesterday thou atest all that was in the house. But wait 
patiently awhile. I have spun a trifle of yarn which I will 
carry to the market street and sell and buy with what it 
may be worth some victual for thee." "0 my mother," 
said he, "keep your yarn and sell it not. Fetch me the 
lamp I brought hither that I may go vend it and with its 
price purchase food. I deem it will bring more money 
than the spinnings." So Aladdin's mother arose and 
fetched the lamp for her son. While so doing, she saw 
that it was dirty exceedingly. So she said, "O my son! 
Here is the lamp. But it is very foul. After we shall have 



COMPOSITION 199 

washed it and polished it it will sell better. ' ' Then, taking 
a handful of sand she began to rub therewith. She had 
only begun when appeared to her a Jinn, big and mon- 
strous as the greatest of giants. And forthwith he cried 
to her, "Say what thou wantest of me. Here am I, thy 
slave, and slave to whosoever holdeth the lamp. Not I 
alone, but all the slaves of the wonderful lamp which thou 
holdest in hand." 

Aladdin's mother quaked and terror was sore upon 
her when she looked at that frightful form. Her tongue 
being tied she could not return aught reply. When he 
heard the slave speaking to his parent, Aladdin hastened 
forwards, and, snatching the lamp from her hand, said, 
"0 slave of the lamp, I am ahungered. It is my desire 
that thou fetch me somewhat to eat and let it be something 
toothsome beyond our means." The Jinn disappeared for 
an eye-twinkle and returned with a mighty fine tray and 
precious of price. For it was all in virginal silver and 
upon it stood twelve golden platters of meats manifold and 
dainties delicate, with bread snowier than snow. And 
there were two silvern cups and as many bottles of wine, 
clear-strained and long-stored. 

From Supplemental Nights to the Book of the Thou- 
sand and One Nights, Translated by R. F. Burton 

Write the model on the board. If this is not possible present 
most of it in this manner and fill in the rest with story. Have 
pupils tell the story in the first person. Each pupil takes the part 
of Aladdin. Direct and question as follows: 

Now you are Aladdin. 

Tell what took place when you awoke. 

What did your mother tell you? J 

What was your plan ? What happened then ? 

Let the pupils vary the expressions in the model. Leave the 
model before the children when they recite and when they write. 
Change the title to, 'My Wonderful Lamp.' 

2. Fifth through eighth years , 

Working in a Laundry 

Twice a week they had to put through hotel linen — the 
sheets, pillow-slips, spreads, table-cloths, and napkins. This 
finished, they buckled down to ' fancy starch. ' It was slow 
work, fastidious and delicate, and Martin did not learn it 



200 SPECIAL METHODS 

readily. 'Fancy starch' was Martin's nightmare. It was 
'fancy starch' that robbed him of his hard- won minutes. 
He toiled at it all day. At seven in the evening they broke 
• off to run the hotel linen through the mangle. At ten 
o'clock, while the hotel guests slept, the laundry men 
sweated on at 'fancy starch' till midnight, till one, till 
two. At half -past two they knocked off. 

It was exhausting work, carried on, hour after hour, 
at top speed. Out on the broad verandas of the hotel, men 
and women, in cool white, sipped iced drinks and kept their 
circulation down. But in the laundry the air was sizzling. 
The huge stove roared red hot and white hot, while the 
irons, moving over the damp cloth, sent up clouds of steam. 
The heat of these irons was different from that used by the 
housewives. An iron that stood the test of a wet finger 
was too cold and such test was useless. They went wholly 
by holding the irons close to their cheeks, gauging the heat 
by some secret mental process. When the fresh irons 
proved too hot, they hooked them on iron rods and dipped 
them into cold water. This again required a precise and 
subtle judgment. A fraction of a second too long in the 
water and the fine and silken edge of the proper heat 
was lost. 

The sweat poured from Martin. He drank copious 
quantities of water, but so great was the heat of the day 
and of his exertions, that the water sluiced through the 
interstices of his flesh and out at all his pores. The man- 
ager of the hotel was lord, not only of Martin's lime, but 
lord of his thoughts as well. He had no thoughts save for 
the nerve-racking, body-destroying toil. The echoing cham- 
ber of his soul was a narrow room, a conning tower, whence 
were directed his arm and shoulder muscles, his ten nimble 
fingers, and the swift moving iron along its steaming path, 
in broad, sweeping strokes, just so many strokes and no 
more, just so far with each stroke and not a fraction of an 
inch farther, rushing along interminable sleeves, sides, 
backs, and tails, and tossing the finished shirts, without 
rumpling, upon the receiving frame. And even as his 
hurrying soul tossed, it was reaching for another shirt. 
This went on, hour after hour, while outside all the world 
swooned under the overhead sun. But there was no swoon- 
ing in that superheated room. The cool guests on the 
veranda needed clean linen. 

From Martin Eden, by Jack London 



COMPOSITION 201 

Write the model or as much of it as possible on the hoard. Have 
pupils tell the story in the first person. Direct and question as 
follows : 

Imagine you are a laundryman. 

Tell what you have to do. 

Why do you not like to iron fancy starch? 

How do you spend the hours? 

Describe the heat in the laundry. 

How do you test the irons? 

Have the pupils vary the expressions found in the model. Show 
how the different ideas are amplified, thus : 

Why did the laundrymen not like 'fancy starch?' 

What expressions in the paragraph show that? 

In the second paragraph, what expressions show that it 

was 'sizzling hot' in the laundry? 
What contrasts are made? Between the inside and the 

outside of the laundry? Between laundry irons and 

house irons ? 
What expressions are used to show how hard the men 

worked ? 

Develop some outline like the following : 
I. I get a position 

1. Applying for work 

2. The laundry. 

3. Work in the laundry. 

II. The heat in the laundry 

1. Air in the laundry 

2. Testing the irons 

3. People outside of the laundry 

III . Hard work in the laundry 

1. How I tried to keep cool 

2. Continuous work all day 

3. My thoughts 



202 SPECIAL METHODS 

Write on the board different expressions for the same thing as 
the pupils recite orally 

' buckled down to, ' keep at, did nothing else than, etc. 
fastidious and delicate, requiring great care, of delicate 

nature, etc. 
exhausting, tiring, heart-breaking, wearing, etc. 
kept their circulation down, did not feel the heat, managed 

to keep cool, etc. 
air was sizzling, they could hardly stand the heat, etc. 

Have pupils write on a topic similar to the one in the model, as, 
Working in a Factory, Working on a Farm, Working in a Depart- 
ment Store, etc. Let the pupils invent incidents, describe situations 
and make contrasts according to their conception of the work. 



CHAPTER IX 
LANGUAGE FORMS AND GRAMMAR — VISUAL 

I. SXTBJECT 

1. Usage. Second and third years. Do not attempt ana- 
logical classification, nomenclature, or formal analysis. Simply lead 
the pupils to give sentences on familiar topics in an orderly and 
systematic manner. 

(a) What persons do. Have the pupils name by occupation 
the different storekeepers, business men, public officials, etc., in the 
neighborhood. Write the words on the board. Then ask the pupils 
what each of the persons does. Proceed somewhat as follows : 

What kind of stores are on the avenue? 

What do you call the storekeepers? 

What do you call the man who sells potatoes? Meat? 

Name others in the neighborhood. 

As the pupils give the names of the different persons, write 
them on the board, and add others in the following manner : 

The baker . 



The butcher 
The druggist 
A blacksmith 
A salesladj^ — 
A carpenter 
A tinsmith — 

A baker 

A butcher — 
The farmer — 



Have the pupils tell what each person does, as follows: 

Look at the first person named on the board. 
Think of the things he does. 
Who can tell me what he does? 

Wait a few moments. Then pass rapidly round the class and 
call on individual pupils to give their sentences. As the sentences 
begin to become much the same, stop the recitation for a few 
moments. Direct the pupils as follows : 

203 



204 SPECIAL METHODS 

Now what else does the baker do beside bake bread, or sell 
bread 1 Think of the different things he does. 

What does he do in the morning, at noon, in the evening ? 

What about his flour, raisins, sugar, bills, rent, children, 
store, windows, holidays, etc. 

Lead the pupils to enter into the life of the character presented 
before them on the board. Proceed in a similar manner with public 
officials, and the like. These will yield the following? 

The policeman 



The letter carrier 

The fireman 

The street cleaner 
The conductor — 
The motorman — 

The soldier 

The sailor 

The janitor 

A policeman 

A letter carrier — 
A fireman 



Have the children base their sentences on intimate acquaintance 
and experience with a baker or butcher or policeman. Question them 
as follows : 

Who was in a baker shop this morning ? 

Who was in a drug store ? 

Who knows a policeman? 

Now think and tell exactly what you saw him do. 

Tell what the baker did. Or what the policeman did. 

Have the pupils impersonate some one of the characters, thus : 

Suppose now that you are a baker. Tell what you do. 
Tell what you did. What you are going to do. 
Begin your sentence with 'I.' 

Write a series of incompleted sentences on the board as follows : 

The baker 

A baker 

I : 

He 



You 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 205 

Each of the preceding sentences deals with the 'baker.' In the 
last sentence, beginning with 'you,' have the children address an 
imaginary baker. Direct them as follows : 

Come up to the front of the room, Smith, and be the baker. 
Get ready a sentence which you are to tell to the baker. 
Tell him what he did or did not do. 
Ask him for something. 

Show that in the last case, the 'you' is not spoken. Explain this 
as follows: 

Ask him again. 

In the sentence, ' Please give me a loaf of bread, ' who does 

the giving? 
As I write the sentence on the board, 
Please give me a loaf of bread, 
Put in what is left out. 

Proceed in a similar manner with the other persons. A number 
of lessons may be spent on the topic according to the manner of 
arrangement of material and the point of attack. 

Bring out the difference between any baker and some one baker 
as follows: 

Who knows the name of his baker ? Of any baker ? 

Tell what he does. 

Tell what he did. 

Tell what he did when you were in the store. 

Proceed in a manner similar with that suggested in the above 
paragraphs. "Write the incompleted sentences on the board, thus : 

The baker, Mr. Smith 

Mr. Smith, the baker 

Mr. Smith 



Mr. Smith, you 

Have the pupils go through the whole day's work of the baker, 
Mr. Smith, or Mr. Brown, or Mr. Jones, as the case may be. Have' 
the pupils tell what he does or did, in the morning, at noon, at even- 
ing, in the store, on the street, in the house, in the flour mill, on the 
wagon, etc. Bring him into connection with such topics as flour, 
sugar, salt, bills, rent, Saturdays, Sundays, etc. Emphasise in each 



206 SPECIAL METHODS 

case his actions, 'What he does' or "What he did. 7 Take any sen- 
tences from the pupils even if they deal with different verb forms, 
as 'will,' or 'can,' so long as they show what the baker does. Deal 
in a similar manner with each of the persons named, as, the butcher, 
druggist, policeman, soldier, etc. 

"Write a series of incompleted sentences on the board. Base them 
on the answers given by the pupils in previous lessons. These sen- 
tences will run somewhat as follows : 

bakes bread. 

sells meat. 

sells medicine. 

bought some flour. 

paid his rent. 

■ arrested a man. 

had his uniform cleaned and pressed. 

dropped the hose. 

mended the fence. 



Have the pupils complete the sentences in as many ways as pos- 
sible. Let them first name the character, as, baker, butcher, etc. 
Then let them give him his name, as, Mr. Smith, etc. 

Introduce plural forms after the pupils have given a series of 
sentences on several of the characters. Write the sentences on the 
board as follows : 

The baker bakes bread. 

The baker sells rolls. 

The baker buys flour. 

The baker cleans the windows. 

The baker pays his rent. 

The baker goes out on Sundays. 

The baker gets up early. 

Under these sentences write the following : 

Bakers . 



Have the pupils change all the singular forms in the series on 
the board to plural forms. Then let each pupil give two sentences, 
one with a singular form, and the other with a plural form, according 
to the model : 

Bakers knead the dough. 
The baker kneads the dough. 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 207 

Treat each of the other persons in the same manner. Treat the 
various changes possible as, I, he, etc., in a similar fashion. 

Show how the word changes its position in the sentence, when a 
question is asked. As the pupils give sentences, write them on the 
board, thus : 

The baker sells rolls. 

The butcher trims the meat. 

The carpenter fixes fences. 

A baker sold me. some buns. 

A butcher sent my mother two pounds of steak. 

Have pupils change the sentence on the board to the form of a 
question. Write the changed forms on the board, thus : 

Does *the baker sell rolls ? 

Does the butcher trim the meat? 

Does the carpenter fix fences? 

Did the baker sell some buns? 

Did the butcher send my mother two pounds of steak? 

Then ask the pupils to give two sentences, one in the regular form 
used at first, and the other in the form of a question. 

Take any one person named, as, the baker, and have the pupils 
tell what he does, in a series. Write the series on the board and use 
it as a model for other activities. Insist that the pupils tell what the 
baker does, or did as the case may be. The sentences will run some- 
what as follows : 

The baker gets up in the morning. He dresses himself. 
He goes into the store. He sells rolls and bread. He eats 
some pie. The baker pays his bills. He gets dough and 
makes more bread and rolls. He heats the oven. The baker 
bakes many loaves of bread. 

Select the sentences as they are given and change them to suit 
the sequence whenever necessary. Construct similar series for other 
persons, as, the butcher, the policeman, etc. Have the series related 
in a past form, as, The baker got up yesterday very early, etc. 
Change the form of the series by having the pupils read the sen- 
tences in the first person, as, I get up, etc. Emphasise the fact that 
each sentence is to tell what the baker does or did, or what I do, etc. 



208 SPECIAL METHODS 

Write a connected paragraph on the blackboard, thus : 

One bright morning, a little tailor sat upon his board 
near the window. He was sewing with all his might. He 
bought some sweet jelly for his bread. The tailor fetched 
bread out of the closet and spread some of the jelly upon 
it. He laid the bread near him and continued to sew. Flies 
soon covered his bread. He seized a strip of cloth and 
struck at the flies. He soon killed seven at one blow. So 
he cut himself a belt and wrote upon it, ' Seven at a blow. ' 
He put the belt on and went out to seek his fortune. 

Question the pupils as follows : 

Who is the person mentioned in the piece? 

What did he do ? 

He is called a 'tailor.' What else is he called? (He). 

With the model on the board before the children, have them tell 
a similar story about a butcher, a grocer, a druggist, etc. Have them 
tell what he does or did. Use passages from the reader for a similar 
purpose. The selection given in the chapter on reading, page 68, can 
be used in this manner. 

(6) What persons are 

Have the pupils name the characters in the neighborhood, as the 
baker, the butcher, etc., the policeman, the fireman, and the like. 
Write a series of the characters on the board, thus ; 

The fireman is 



The policeman is 

The letter carrier is 

The baker is 

The butcher is 

The farmer is 



Have the pupils look at the board and read to themselves the 
different names. Question them as follows : 

What do we call a fireman? 
What do we say he is? 

If it is necessary, get the pupils started right by asking them: 

Is the fireman afraid or brave? 
Is the fireman short or tall? 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 209 

Have the pupils give different qualities by presenting different 
situations in which the fireman may be. Direct them as follows : 

Think of the fireman in the morning before, breakfast. 
Think of him after a hard day 's work, after he has been in 

the smoke and the dirt, after he has been praised for 

saving a life, etc. 

Indicate situations by writing topics on the board, thus : 

Very early in the morning 

At breakfast 

With his companions in the fire house 

In the fire 

Before the fire 

After the fire 

At home with his children 

In general, as size, weight, strength, looks, etc. 

Deal with the other topics, as, the policeman, the baker, etc., in 
this manner. 

Write a series of sentences on the board as given by the children, 
thus: 

The fireman is hungry. 
The fireman is tired. 
The fireman is merry. 
The fireman is agreeable. 
The fireman is dirty. 
The fireman is smoky. 
The fireman is clean. 
The fireman is angry. 
The fireman is tall. 

Have the children change the person, and substitute, 'You,' and 
'I.' Write a model on the board, thus : 

The fireman is 

A fireman is 

He is 

You 

I 



In the same or a different lesson introduce the forms 

Firemen . 

Thev 



210 SPECIAL METHODS 

With the series of sentences on the fireman before them, have 
the children read the same sentences with changed words, as, The 
fireman, You, I, etc. Treat the other topics as, the baker, the butcher, 
etc., in the manner suggested. 

Write a series of incompleted sentences on the board, thus : 

is brave. 

is very tired. 

is full of smoke. 

is full of flour. 

is greasy. 

is heavy. 

is jolly. 

is handsome. 



Have the pupils read each sentence. Let them fill in any subject 
which is appropriate. After the sentences have been completed 
in different ways, have the pupils change the order of the words by 
asking a question. Let them give both the statement and the ques- 
tion, thus : 

The policeman is brave. 
Is the policeman brave? 

With the model on the board, let the pupils deal with the baker, 
the butcher, the grocer, the fireman, etc. Remain on one topic as 
long as possible, as, the fireman in the fire house, at home, with his 
companions, with his children, etc., etc. 

Let the pupils arrange a series of sentences on one topic. Write 
them on the board in a kind of descriptive paragraph, changing the 
sentences to suit the sequence, thus : 

My friend, Mr. Smith, the baker, is a jolly person. He 
is big and tall. In the morning he is white with flour. He 
seems happy and gay. He is honest. He looks tired at 
night. He is very kind to his children. He is good to me. 

With the model before them let the pupils give similar sentences 
about the butcher, the letter carrier, etc. Change ili<' form of the 
sentences by having tbe pupils use. I, They, or You. 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 211 

(c) What happens to persons. Create a feeling for a definite 
situation, as follows : 

When the fireman is in the burning building, what some- 
times happens to him? 
When he is holding the hose, what happens at times? 
When he is asleep and the alarm rings ? 
When he is harnessing the horses ? 

Write the sentences on the board, making corrections when 
necessary, thus : 

The fireman was burned. 

The fireman was wet. 

The fireman was wakened. 

The fireman was kicked by the horse. 

Have the pupils think of different sentences for the same situa- 
tion, thus : 

The fireman Avas burned. 

The fireman was hit by falling timbers. 

The fireman was saved. 

The fireman was hurt. 

The fireman was pulled out of the building. 

Treat the other characters, e. g., the policeman, the baker, etc., as 
suggested above. 

Have the pupils give sentences in the manner just suggested and 
write them on the board. Write the following model on the board: 

The fireman wias burned. 
Firemen . 

He . 

I L . 



9 



You 

Thev 

Was 

Were ? 



Call on pupils to complete the sentences according to the model. 
Let each pupil complete one or two of them. 



212 SPECIAL METHODS 

Write a series of incomplete sentences on the board as follows 

was shot. 

was hurt. 

•■ — — was wakened. 

is being paid. 

will be sent on post. 

has been kicked by a horse. 

has been burned on the arm. 

was lifted on the wagon. 



Call on pupils to fill in the proper persons. Have them fill in as 
many persons as possible for the same sentence. Question as follows : 

Who else may be shot? 

Think of some other person to whom that may happen. 

Name some other person. 

For example, a soldier, a sailor, a policeman, a baker, etc., may 
be named for the first sentence. After the series has been filled in 
have the pupils fill each sentence in according to the model : 

He . 

I . 



You 

They — 
Was - — 

Were 



Write a series of sentences on the board as follows : 

I was suddenly roused by the ringing of a bell. I 
jumped up and dressed myself. Other firemen wore put- 
ting on their coats. I slid down the pole. My friend was 
hitching up the horses. He told me where the fire was. We 
were ordered to start at once. The engine started out. \ 
was helped on it as it was going out into the street. 

Let the children read the paragraph. Then let them read it 
sentence by sentence. Ask the pupils to tell (1) who the persons 
are, (2) what they are doing, or (3) what is happening to them. Let 
the pupils construct paragraphs on similar topics, as, Arresting a 
man, Seeking a position, Going on an errand, etc. 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 



213 



Give the lessons above suggested in either of two ways: (1) 
Take a number of persons, as, the baker, butcher, policeman, etc., 
and deal with one aspect of their activities in the lesson, as, what 
they do during the day. In another lesson take up the plural forms 
of the series. In still another change the persons to 'I,' 'You,' etc. 
A series of lessons can be given in this manner. Or (2), Take only 
one character, as, the baker, and deal with the different forms of 
sentences. Thus treat what the baker does during the day, have the 
pupils change the form of the sentences given, have them give dif- 
ferent subjects, as, I, You, etc., and so on, all in a single lesson or 
two. In another lesson take up some other character, as, the fireman, 
and treat the topic in a similar manner. One or two characters can 
be taken in a single lesson. Considerable variety is possible accord- 
ing to the combinations made by the teacher. 

(d) What animals do. Call upon the pupils to name the dif- 
ferent animals which they know. Write the names on the board : 



The dog 

The cat 

The horse 

The sparrow — 

The owl 

The chicken — 

The lion 

The tiger 

The wolf 

The fox 

The sheep 

The bear : — 



Let them tell what each animal does. After the pupils have 
filled in the sentences, spend some time on a single animal. Call up 
different situations as follows : 



What else does the dog do besides bark? 
What does he do when he sees you? 
What does he do when he has a bone ? 
When you try to take the bone away? 
When you beat him? 
How does he go to sleep ? 
How does he hide a bone? 
What does he do when he is tired? 



214 SPECIAL METHODS 

Write the sentence on the board, thus : 

The dog runs. 
The dog wags his tail. 
The dog jumps around me. 
The dog licks my hand. 
The dog runs up to me. 
The dog gnaws his bone. 
The dog crunches the bone. 
The dog chews at 'the bone. 

Have the pupils give as many sentences for the same situation as 
possible. Treat each of the animals named in a similar manner. 

Write a series of sentences on the board as they are given by the 
children. Alongside of them write the following model : 

The dog wags his tail. 

Dogs — 

He . 

They . 

My dog, (Fido, Prince, Trot, etc.) 
I , 

You . 

Does ? 

Do ? 



Have the pupils fill in one or more of the sentences according to 
the model. Treat each sentence in the series in this manner. If it 
seems better, give one lesson on the plurals, one on the changed form, 
I, He, You, etc., one on the question, and so on. 

Write a series of incompleted sentences on the board as follows : 

barks. 

mews. 

flies. 

hoots. 

growls. 

leaps. 

runs. 

eats meat. 

drinks milk. 

stretches himself. 

washes himself. 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 215 

Have the pupils fill in the proper names. Let them fill in as 
many as are possible for the same sentence. Let them sit back and 
think of the different animals that bark, or fly, or leap, etc. After a 
series has been filled in, let the pupils fill the sentences in again with 
different subject words, as, They, He, I, You, etc. Then have them 
give the same sentences in the form of a question. 

In a connected series of sentences call upon the pupils to tell 
what some animal does in a given situation. Direct the pupils as 
follows : 

At dinner time what do you prepare for your dog ? 

"Where do you put the food ? 

What does your dog do ? 

How does he show he is hungry ? 

How does he show he is satisfied? 

Write the series of sentences on the board, making slight 
changes to suit the sequence : 

I get some soup meat and bones and put them into a 
dish. Fido runs up and wags his tail. He puts his nose into 
the dish! He eats the meat and licks up the soup. He likes 
to gnaw at bones. After he has eaten, he stretches himself. 
Then he goes round and round in a corner and lies down. 

Call upon pupils to give sentences for different animals, as, the 
cat, the chicken, etc. Let them follow the model on the board. Hold 
them to what the animal does. Call up different situations for the 
different animals, as, A lion hunting a deer, A mouse getting some 
cheese, A cat catching a rat, and the like. Question the children and 
have them give a series of sentences on what the animal does at each 
stage of the activity. 

(e) What animals are. Have the pupils name animals with 
which they are familiar, as, the dog, cat, horse, lion, tiger, bear, etc. 
Indicate different conditions and situations as follows : 

Size, color, etc. 

Kind, nature, disposition, etc. 

At evening, in the morning, before eating, etc. 

In the house, on the street, in the forest, etc. 



216 SPECIAL METHODS 

Take any one topic, as, size, and have the pupils tell what each 
of the animals is, thus : 

The cat is small. 
My dog is little. 
A horse is big. 
A camel is tall. 
A lion is large. 

Treat the animal under each of the topics. Take any one animal r 
and have the pupils tell what he is with reference to the topics indi- 
cated on the board. Write down the sentences on the board as they 
are given, thus : 

My dog is very big. 

He is dark brown. 

He is about two feet high. 

He is good natured. 

He is very tame. 

My dog, Fido, is very jolly. 

At evening, he is sleepy. 

He looks tired. 

In the morniug he is frisky. 

He is always hungry. 

In the house he is quiet. 

Deal with each of the animals named in. much the same fashion. 

Write the following model on the board : 

The lion is fierce and terrible. 

Lions 

He 

They 

You 

I 

Is 



Are 



Have the pupils give each sentence in the forms suggested by 
the model. In the 'I' and the 'You' they can dramatise the situa- 
tion. Deal with the other animals named in a similar manner. Have 
the pupils fill in the following sentences, and then apply the above 
model to each of the sentences given : 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 21' 



is tame. 

is strong and big. 

is tired out. 

is hungry. 

is frisky. 

is gentle. 



Let the pupils name as many animals as possible for the given 
sentence. 

Let the pupils describe some animal in a series of sentences. 

Write the sentences on the board as they are given by the pupils, 

thus: 

The cat on our back fence is a hungry looking animal. 
He is thin and lean. He is black and white. He seems 
always to be hungry. He is very noisy at night. In the 
day time he is asleep. He does not seem much good to 
anybody. 

Have the pupils describe other animals, as, My dog, The lion in 
the forest, The wolf in the zoo, The camel on the desert, The bird in 
the tree, etc. Indicate an animal in a definite situation. Have the 
pupils describe the size, color, nature, and peculiar characteristics of 
the animal. Write the series of sentences on the board, and let the 
pupils read them with different subjects, as, They, I, You, etc. 

(/) What happens to animals. Lead the pupils to tell 'What 
happens to animals' by indicating specific situations. Write a series 
of suggestive topics on the board, thus : 

For being naughty 
For looking into a trap 
For fighting 

Write a series of sentences on the board as given by the children : 

The dog was whipped. 
My dog was scolded. 
Our dog was locked up. 
He was tied to a chain. 

The lion was caught. 
The lion was hurt. 
He was surprised. 

The cat was beaten. 

The cat was bitten. 

He was all scratched up. 



218 SPECIAL METHODS 

Have the pupils read off the sentences according to the following 
model : 

Thev . 

I . 

We . 



You . 

Was ? 

Were ? 

Use the same model for other incompleted sentences. Have the 
pupils fill in the following, and then apply the model : 

was caught in a trap. 

was shot by the hunter. 

was chased into the woods. 

was tied to a chain. 

was put into a cage. 

was fed with meat. 

was fed with bread. 



As in the preceding exercises, have the children name all the 
animals to which the sentence applies. Question the pupils, if neces- 
sary, as follows: 

Name other animals that may be caught in a trap. 
Think a little longer. Are birds caught that way .' 
What little animals are so caught? 

Write a series of connected sentences on the board, thus : 

The kitten became very hungry. She was left all alone 
by her mother. She slunk out of the old box. She felt her 
way silently among the rubbish, smelt everything, but did 
not find any food. At length she reached some wooden 
steps. She went through an open door into a large place. 
She was seen by a negro who sat on a box. Kitty wandered 
past some rabbits. She came to a wide-barred cage in 
which was a fox. He crouched low. His eyes glowed. The 
pussy wandered to the bars, and slipped in. She was 
seized at once by the fox. Never in her life was she so 
shaken. She was frightened nearly to death. She was 
nearly killed before she was saved by the negro. He pulled 
her out of the fox's jaws. 

Based on 'The Slum Cat' in Ernest Thompson Seton's 
Animal Herat s 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 219 

Have the pupils read (1) What kitty did, (2) "What kitty was, 
and (3) What happened to kitty. Have them tell a similar story 
about a dog, a canary, a rabbit, a mouse, etc. Let the pupils give 
the sentences in a series, and then pick out the sentences, according 
to the three divisions, What he did, What he was, and What hap- 
pened to him. 

(g) What things are. Begin with the topic, What things are. 
Have the pupils name things according to some definite order. 
Write on the board suggestive topics, as : 

Tools and utensils in the home; in the school 

Furniture in the home ; in the school 

Tools for gardening ; carpentry ; iron working, etc. 

Means of traveling ; houses ; buildings 

Materials for clothing, etc. 

Trees, shrubs, fruits, vegetables, fibres, etc. 

Meats, drinks, medicines, candies, cereals, etc. 

Places, as, streets, cities, states, countries, etc. 

Write down the things given for one or two of the topics, thus : 
A knife is . 



The fork is 

A pan is 

A broom is 
A pail is — 
A pencil is 
A pen is 



Have the pupils give two or three sentences for each thing. Direct 
them in the beginning of the lesson as follows : 

Tell its size, color, weight, shape, etc. 
What strikes you as soon as you see it ? 
Why is it in the house? 

Write down two or three sentences as they are given by the 
pupils, thus : 

A knife is long and thin. 
It is grey in color. 
The handle is black. 
It is very sharp. 



220 SPECIAL METHODS 

Ask the pupils to take a series of three or four sentences and 
change the form, thus : 

Knives . 

They . 

Ts ? 

Are ? 

Write a series of sentences on the board, and have the pupils 
guess what the object is, thus : 

I am long and high. My colors are green and black. 
Inside I am yellow and red. Day and night I am busy. 
I never am tired. I am very useful to people. My best 
friends are passengers. I am a . 

Call upon pupils to give the different names which can be used. 
Have them read the sentences with different subjects, as, We, It, 
They, or You. Make up puzzle paragraphs for other objects. Any 
number of lessons can be prepared by dealing with a few articles 
or topics in a single lesson. 

(h) What things do. Have the pupils name a number of 
things under some topic, and write the names on the board, thus : 

A hammer . 

A saw . 



A plane 

A screwdriver 
A hatchet 



Call upon pupils to fill in the sentences. Write them on the board 
as follows: 

A hammer hammers nails. 

A saw cuts wood. 

A chisel smooths wood. 

A plane makes wood smooth. 

A screwdriver turns screws. 

A hatchet splits wood. 

Call upon the pupils to exercise a little more imagination. 
Present different situations as follows : 

When not looked after 

If not oiled 

If handled roughly 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 221 

Write these suggestions on the board. Have the pupils deal 
with one thing in the different situations. Write down the sentences 
given by the children, thus : 

A hammer hammers nails. 

It grows dull. 

It gets rusty. 

It breaks at the handle. 

It loses a piece at the corner. 

Have the pupils take any one of the sentences and change the 
form according to the model : 

Hammers ■ . 

They . 

I . 



Does 
Do - 



Deal with other things in the manner outlined. 

Write a series of sentences on the board as follows : 

In the front of a little garden there grew a small 
flower. The sun shone brightly and warmly upon it. It 
grew hourly. A lark flew to the flower and kissed it. It 
sang to her and then flew up again into the blue sky. Little 
children passed by and looked at it. One morning it stood 
fully open. It showed its delicate, white, gleaming leaves. 
These surrounded the little yellow center. The yellow 
center of the flower looked like a small gold piece. The 
thin white leaves around gleamed silver white. The flower 
was a . 

Based on 'The Daisy,' in Fairy Tales by Hans Andersen 

Have the children read the paragraph and guess what the 
flower is. Have them read the sentences with different subjects, as, 
I, They, You or We. Ask the children to name the things men- 
tioned in the selection. Then let the children tell what the things 
do. Find or make up paragraphs for other things and treat them 
as suggested. 



222 SPECIAL METHODS 

(i) What things are made of. What happens to things. Let 
the pupils name objects in the manner suggested. Write the names 
on the board as follows : 

My coat 

My waist 

My hat 

My shoes 



My stockings 
My gloves — 



Ask the pupils to tell what the object is made of. Have them 
give the same sentences according to the forms : 

Coats . 



Our coats 
They 



You 

What is 
What are 

Is 

Are 



Write incompleted sentences on the board as follows 



is made of cotton, 
is made of leather, 
is made of silk, 
is made of wool. 



Let the pupils name as many articles as they can for each of 
the incompleted sentences. Let them also give the same sentences 
in the different forms suggested by the preceding model. Treat 
other objects in the same way. 

Let the pupils name a series of objects. Ask them to tell what 
happened before the object received its present shape. Question 
somewhat as follows: 

What was it at first? 
Maine the different parts. 
AY hat was each at first? 
What happened to it? 
Then whnl happened to it? 
Then what was done to it? 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 223 

Bring before the pupils an idea of a definite situation. Let 
them give the stages in the manufacture of tools, of furniture, of 
clothing, in the construction of houses, bridges, etc., in the prepa- 
ration of food and drink, in the laying out of streets, and so on. 
Write a series of sentences on the board as a model, thus : 

The desk is made of wood. 

The tree was cut down. 

It was carried to the saw mill. 

It was cut up into boards. 

The boards were planed. 

They were cut up into small pieces. 

The wood was shaped for a desk. 

It was glued and screwed together. 

It was sandpapered and polished. 

Then it was varnished. 

It was carried to the factory. 

From the factory it was carried to the school. 

Similar series should be given by the pupils for the construc- 
tion of houses, the manufacture of different articles, and the like. 
Insist that the pupils tell what happened at each stage. Have each 
pupil give one or more sentences in the series. Similar series can 
be constructed for the finished articles. Let the pupils tell what 
happens to some object during the course of the day or week. In- 
dicate different situations thus : 

When not in use. 

When in use. 

In the morning, at noon, at evening. 

Take some topic and have the pupils tell what happens to the 
object according to the suggestions on the board, thus : 

The meat is bought in the butcher shop. 

It is taken home and put on ice. 

At noon it is roasted in the oven. 

What is left is again put on ice. 

In the evening it is served cold. 

Next morning it is cut up for sandwiches. 

The rest is made into a stew. 



224 SPECIAL METHODS 

Let the pupils tell some portion of the history of different ob- 
jects in this manner. Write a series on the board. Let the pupils 
tell the story with different subjects, as I, You, and if possible, They 
and We. 

Write a series of sentences on the board as follows : 

"Hold me fast," she said. The Fingers took her up 
carefully. She was taken on a long journey. She was 
pulled along through linen, cotton and wool. At evening 
she was laid aside. Sometimes she was placed upright in 
a soft bed. When she had a long train after her she be- 
came real proud. "See, I come with a train," she said. 
The train was long aud white. The Fingers made a knot 
in the train. They, took her on another long journey. She 
was used so much she grew tired. Her train was shortened 
so much that it was like a stubby tail. What was it ? 

Based on 'The Darning Needle,' in Fairy Tales by 
Hans Anderseu 

Ask the children to name the objects mentioned in the para- 
graph. Let them tell, (1) What the things did, (2) What they 
were, and (3) What happened to them. Have the pupils use dif- 
ferent subjects, as, I or You. Make up paragraphs for other objects 
and deal with them as suggested above. 

2. Usage and naming. Fourth and fifth years. Do not attempt 
any formal definition or naming. Introduce the names, 'Subject' 
and 'Predicate' when it is necessary to name the two parts of sen- 
tences written on the board. Separate the subject from the predi- 
cate and write the names over the parts of the sentence. Then use 
the terms whenever it is necessary in the course of the lesson. Have 
the pupils give sentences in the manner suggested in the preceding 
section. Write them on the board and indicate the parts of the sen- 
tences as follows : 

Subject Predicate 



The letter carrier 

He 

He 

He 



delivers the mail. 

goes from house. 

puts the letter in the letter box. 

goes home very tired. 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAS 225 

Have the pupils change the order of the words by putting them 
in the form of a question, thus : 

Did the letter carrier deliver the mail? 
Did he come to our house ? 
Did he put the letter in the letter box? 
Has he gone home? 

Write the sentences on the board and question somewhat as 
follows : 

Where is the subject now? 

Pick out the subject in the first sentence. 

Pick out the predicate. 

Who can write the subject on the board? 

If pupils ask what the subject is, let them look at the board. 
Let them read the subject as 'The letter carrier,' and tell them 
the subject is the person spoken about. Tell them similarly that 
the predicate is what we say about the person or thing. Do not at- 
tempt any formal definition, however, and do not hold pupils to any 
definition of terms. Simply have them pick out subjects and predi- 
cates. 

Have the pupils address a letter carrier. Let one of the pupils 
be the letter carrier, and have other pupils ask questions. Direct 
them as follows: 

You are waiting for a letter. Here comes the letter car- 
rier. 
What will you say to him ? 
What else will you ask him? 

Write on the board the series of sentences given, thus : 

Have you any letter for me? 

Please tell me if there is any mail for me. 

Is there any letter for Brown ? 

Simplify the sentences if necessary, as follows : 

Tell me. 

Is there any mail for me? 



226 SPECIAL METHODS 

Question the pupils as follows : 

Who does the telling? 

Suppose you said, 'Will you tell me,' what is the subject? 

Give other sentences with 'You' understood. 

Treat the same topic under different heads : , 

What he is. 

What happens to him. 

Have the pupils give the same sentences with different verb 
forms, as, delivered, will deliver, has delivered, may have delivered, 
could have delivered, etc. Write the verb forms on the board and 
have the pupils change the sentences accordingly. Then let the 
children pick out the subject and predicate of each of the sen- 
tences. Show that the subject remains about the same, though often 
placed in different parts of the sentence. Point out that in ques- 
tion forms the predicate is often cut in two by a subject which is. 
placed in the middle. 

Write a series of incompleted sentences on the board thus: 

In the morning rings the bell. 

At night patrols the streets. 

Very many times — ■ is in danger. 

is a jolly good fellow. 

Yesterday was hurt very badly. 

Give me my hat. 
Go home. 

Did have it in his store? 

Was ■ at your house today? 

How often has called ? 

Take one or more series of sentences in a single lesson. Ask 
the pupils to supply subjects. After the pupils have supplied dif- 
ferent subjects, select appropriate subjects and fill them in on the 
board. Then have the pupils read the subjects. Question them as 
follows: 

Read the subject. 

What did you supply 'In the morning,' or only 'The 

milkman?' Then what is the subject? 
Read the predicate. Why do you leave out 'In the morn-' 

ing?' 
What was on the board before you supplied the subject? 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 227 

Deal systematically (1) with person, animals and things, (2) 
with direct statements, with the same statements in the form of 
questions, and with direct questions ('You,' understood), (3) 
with what persons, etc., do, what they are and what happens to 
them, and (4) with the different verb forms. Ask pupils to pick 
out only the subjects and predicates, and to supply, when neces- 
sary, subjects and predicates. 

3. Formal analysis. Sixth through eighth years. Use sen- 
tences of the following types : 

(a) Regular order 

1. The books were very heavy. 

2. He has written the composition. 

3. The birds sang sweetly. 

4. He was standing there. 

5. The waves were singing a wild song. 

(&) Inverted order 

1. "Were the books very heavy? 

2. Has he written the composition? 

3. Did the bird sing sweetly? 

4. Was he standing there ? 

5. What are the wild waves singing? 

(c) Regular order with modifiers 

1. A small class of boys is in the room. 

2. A troop of soldiers was seen in the neighborhood. 

3. Many bags of corn are sold every year. 

4. Many kinds of wood have been found in the south- 

ern lands. 

5. A stout man, with a bundle of papers, was standing 

on the corner. 

(d) Inverted order with modifiers 

1. Is a small class of boys in the room ? 

2. Was a troop of soldiers seen in the neighborhood? 

3. Are many bags of corn sold every year ? 

4. Have many kinds of wood been found in the south- 

ern lands? 

5. Was a stout man, with a bundle of papers, standing 

on the corner? 



228 SPECIAL METHODS 

(e) Idiomatic and elliptical 

1. Go home. 

2. John, go home. 

3. Give him his hat. 

4. Bring me my books. 

5. We asked him a question. 

6. He is like his brother. 

7. There was no one like him. 

8. He made me a coat. 

9. They offered him a position. 
10. Bless you, my little man. 

Ask the pupils for sentences. Let them give sentences on one 
of the following topics: 

Persons 

What they do, did, etc. 

What they are, were, etc. 

What happens, is done, was done, to them, etc. 

Animals 

What they do, did, etc. 

What they are, were, etc. 

What happens, is done, was done, to them, etc. 

Places 

What they are, were, etc. 

What they are, were, etc. (situated, placed, found,. 

etc.). 
What happens, is done, was done, to them, etc. 

Things 

What they are, were, etc. 

What they do, did, etc. 

What they are made of, used for, etc. 

What happens, is done, was done, to them, etc. 

Write one of the outlines on the board. For the particular 

persons, animals, etc., follow the general scheme suggested in the 

preceding sections. In addition add persons studied about in 

history, places in geography, etc. Direct and question as follows : 

Name some things used every day. 

Give some sentences telling about the things. 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 229 

Write some of the sentences on the board, thus : 

A basket is on the table. 
Our knives are very sharp. 

Ask the pupils for subject, and subject word. 

Show that in the inverted sentence and in the sentence with 
modifiers, the subject can still be the same. Let the pupils give 
sentences as in the preceding lesson. Take one of the sentences. 
Have the pupils amplify it as follows : 

What is in the basket? 
What is the basket made of? 
When was it on the table? 
Was it near anything? 

Take a series and write it on the board, thus : 

A basket is on the table. 
A basket of peaches is on the table. 

Yesterday a beautiful basket of peaches was on the table. 
A big basket of peaches, right near the plates, is on the 
table. 

Have the pupils amplify other sentences in a similar manner. 
Take the first sentence and separate it into subject and predicate, 
thus: 

Subject Predicate 



A basket I is on the table 

Have the pupils read the other sentences and pick out the sub- 
ject, and the subject word. Bring out the fact that the subject 
word is the same in each. Then give other sentences based on ones 
given by the pupils and write them on the board, thus : 

A nice, large barrel of apples will come today. 

Many cases of fruit are on their way from the coast. 

The plate of prunes near the milk pitcher belongs to you. 

Ask the pupils to pick out the subject and the subject word. 



230 SPECIAL METHODS 

Treat the inverted sentence in a similar manner. Use the same 
series of sentences as above, if possible. Write them on the board, 
thus : 

The plate is on the table. 

A plate of prunes is on the table. 

The plate of prunes near the milk pitcher belongs to you. 

Ask the pupils to change the statements to questions. Write 
the changed sentences on the board as follows: 

Is the plate on the table? 
Is there a plate on the table? 
Is there a plate of prunes on the table ? 
Does the plate of prunes belong to me? 
Does that plate of prunes near the milk pitcher belong 
to me? 

Direct the pupils as suggested in the preceding paragraph, and 
have them pick out the subject and the subject word. Then write a 
series of similar sentences on the board, and let the pupils deal 
with them in a similar manner. 

Before giving sentences in which 'You' is omitted, give or get 
sentences in which 'You' is expressed. Direct and question as fol- 
lows: 

Suppose you ask the grocer for a basket of peaches. 
What else will you say? 

Write the sentences on the board as follows : 

Please give me a basket of peaches. 
Have you any peaches? 
Will you kindly give me some peaches? 
Are you going to send the peaches today? 

Show that the subject word is 'you' in each of the sentences, thus: 

Who does the giving? 

What do you say when you speak to him, 'Grocer send?' 

Now read it without the 'Please.' 

What word is left out? 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 231 

Write a series of sentences on the board, with and without the 
'yon,' as follows: 

Are you going home ? 
Will you go home? 
Go home, now. 
Go home. 

Can you get me a pencil ? 
Will you kindly get me a pencil? 
Did you get me my pencil? 
Get me my pencil. 

Have the pupils read the sentences, and pick out the subject 
word in each case. Pass rapidly round the class and call on in- 
dividual pupils. If a pupil misses, have him listen to the others, 
and then call on him again. In each of the lessons, deal with the 
topics as topics, not only of grammar, but also of oral language. 
Bring out that the formal analysis is an aid to written and oral 
composition. 



CHAPTER X 
GRAMMAR — VISUAL — (Concluded) 

II. The Object Complement 

1. Usage. Third year. Follow the same classification of per- 
sons, animals and things given in section 1. Begin with things. 
Indicate whether the pupils are to deal with things in the home, in 
the neighborhood, etc., by writing the topic on the board, thus : 

At home 

Tools, as, hammer, saw, screwdriver, etc. 
Utensils, as, dishes, pans, pots, glasses, etc. 
Furniture, as, chairs, tables, desks, etc. 

Let the pupils give sentences. Direct and question them as 
follows : 

"Who uses any tools at home ? 
What do you do? 
How do you use them? 
What do you make or fix? 
How do you help your mother? 

Write on the board a series of sentences as the pupils give them, thus : 

My brother used a hammer last night. 

He helped my mother hang pictures. 

He took the hammer and hammered nails in the wall. 

I held the pictures. 

My mother handed up the nails. 

Call upon, pupils to give sentences similar to the ones on the 
board. Insist that they give sentences in which persons do some- 
thing to one of the objects named on the board. Suggest situations 
as follows: 

Making a window box 
Cutting up wood for kindling 
Washing dishes for the Sunday dinner 
Arranging chairs for visitors 

232 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 233 

Write these topics on the board, and in addition, the following 
aids: 

Who is the person who does the work? 

What does he do ? 

What is the thing he uses, or makes, or handles, etc ? 

Keep the pupils to the general form, 'A person who does 
something to an object.' Treat other classes of objects in the man- 
ner above outlined. 

Write a series of names on the board, thus : 

dishes. 

a glass. 

forks. 

■ cups. 



Let the pupils fill in the sentences in as many ways as possible. 
Question as follows : 

What did you do to the dishes ? 

What else did you do? 

Then what did you do ? 

Who else does anything to them? 

Treat other objects in a similar fashion. Have the pupils tell 
who does something to objects in specific situations, as in the baking 
of bread, the making of pudding, the care of clothing, riding in a 
car, planting seeds, preparing a drink and the like. 

Write a paragraph on the board somewhat as follows : 

We gathered some apples yesterday. We had to shake 
the trees for them. My brother threw sticks up at the 
tree. We brought home a large basketful of them. Sister 
peeled them. Mother cooked them. We had apple cake 
and apple dumplings. We can eat apple sauce and apple 
cake for the next week. 

Ask the pupils to read the paragraph. Let them take each of 
the sentences and tell what was done. Then ask them for the ob- 
jects to which anything was done directly. Make up paragraphs 
for other objects, and let the pupils make up paragraphs similar to 
the model. 



234 SPECIAL METHODS 

Present situations in which persons act on persons or influence 
them in a specific manner, thus : 

Buying from the grocer, butcher, druggist, etc. 
Arresting some one, locking him up, etc. 
Saving a man at a fire, reviving him, etc. 
Saving a man from drowning, reviving him, etc. 
Paying a call, giving a present, etc. 
Receiving a visitor, offering tea or coffee, etc. 

Write one or two of the topics on the board. Let the pupils 
tell either what they do, or what they saw the person concerned do 
to some other person. Direct and question as follows: 

What do you do when you enter the grocery store ? 
After you have asked the grocer, what do you do ? 
When he gives you your parcel? 
What do you then do ? What, not thank him ? 

Insist that the pupils tell of a definite action which affects some 
person. 

Write a series of incompleted sentences on the board as fol- 
lows : 



me. 

you. 

them. 

us. 

the grocer. 

the baker. 

the fireman. 



Have the pupils fill in the blanks in as many ways as possible. 
Let them relate personal experiences. Ask them to tell of people 
they know, and what such people do or did to them. Let the pupils 
also tell of the different objects which acted on them, as articles in 
the home, tools, furniture, clothing, etc. Any experiences with 
animals should also be included. 

Deal with animals in a similar manner. Have pupils tell what 
they do to a do°r, on the street, in the home, etc. Let them tell how 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 235 

men treat horses, in the fields, in the stable, and on the street. 
Write a series of sentences on the board somewhat as follows : 

We visited the 'zoo' yesterday. We saw many ani- 
mals. The deer licked our hands and ate the candy we 
gave them. In the monkey house we gave the monkeys 
some peanuts. The keeper saw us. He took me by the 
arm and told me to stop. Later he fed the monkeys. They 
pulled him by the sleeves and ran up and down the cage. 

Ask the pupils to read the paragraph, and then break it up into 
sentences. Let them give each sentence, tell what is done, and who 
it is that is acted upon. Let the pupils construct other paragraphs 
on similar topics, as, Our visit to the farmyard, I visit my aunt, In 
a factory, In a blacksmith's shop, etc. Construct other paragraphs, 
and let the pupils give sentences for such topics, as, At a fire, On 
board a ship, In a department store, At the school assembly, and the 
like. Hold the pupils to sentences which tell what the pupil does to 
others, and what they do to him. 

2. Usage and naming. Fourth and fifth years. Have the 
pupils give sentences in the manner suggested in the preceding sec- 
tion. Arrange the sentences on the board as follows : 



Subject 


Predicate 




Mother 

I 
My brother 


made 

ate 

had 


some nice apple cake 
a big slice of it. 
some of it (too). 







Question the pupils as follows : 

What did mother make ? 

After the word 'made' what is added? 

What completes the sentence, after ' make ? ' 

Let the pupils give similar sentences and write them on the 
board, under the headings 'Subject' and 'Predicate. ' Break up the 
predicate as above suggested. Let the pupils read (1) the subject, 
and (2) the predicate. Show that the predicate can be still further 



236 SPECIAL METHODS 

divided, and use the term 'object complement' as you refer to it. 
Write the expression 'Object Complement' on the board. Do not 
attempt any formal definition or treatment of the expression it- 
self. Use it simply as a necessary term to name the part of the 
sentence that completes the predicate. Connect the expression 
with 'doing' and 'action.' 

3. Formal analysis. Sixth, through eighth years. Present sen- 
tences in the following order of difficulty : 

(a) Regular order 

1. We ate the cake. 

2. They saw us. 

3. I told him. 

4. He told me. 

5. He threw down his basket. 

6. They bought me some peaches. 

7. Give me a basket of peaches. 

8. Tell me a nice, long story. 

9. We threw away the pits of the peaches. 
10. I like this one very much. 

(b) Inverted order 

1. This peach I really want. 

2. This basket of peaches you sold to me. 

3. How many peaches did you eat? 

4. How many baskets of peaches do you want ? 

5. What kind of peaches do you wish? 

6. What did you say just then? 

7. Whom are you addressing ? 

8. One of these baskets I shall take along, now. 

9. How many persons did you see in the room? 
10. Well, what do you think of it? 

Select some topic and have the pupils tell of persons who do 
things to the objects named. Take some topic as food, for example, 
and question as follows: 

Name some foods. 

What else do you eat? 

How does the food come, loose, in packages, by the pound, 

etc.? 
Take 'apples,' or 'peaches.' Who buys them? 
In the house who does anything to the peaches? 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 237 

Write sentences on the board as they are given by the children, 
thus: 

My mother buys peaches. 

My mother bought a quart of peaches. 

My mother gave me a peach. 

Have the pupils amplify these sentences, change the form, etc., as 
follows : 

When did your mother buy the peaches? 
Where did she buy them ? 
How do you ask the grocer for peaches ? 
What other questions do you ask? 

Write the sentences on the board, making slight changes in them 
if necessary, thus : 

Will you send me three baskets of peaches? 

These peaches my mother bought yesterday. 

How many quarts can you send me this afternoon? 

Arrange the parts of the sentences on the board as follows : 



Subject 


Predicate 




My mother 


bought (yesterday) 


these peaches 


my mother 


bought (yesterday) 


These peaches 


you 


can . . . afternoon 


How many quarts? 


Etc., etc. 







Have the pupils select the object complement, and the object word. 

Write a series of sentences on the board. Have the pupils se- 
lect the object complement and the object word of each sentence. 
Writ them on the board as follows : 

Object Complement 



these peaches 
three quarts of peaches 
How many quarts ? 



238 SPECIAL METHODS 

If the pupils have trouble with the inverted forms, give the cor- 
responding regular form and then show how it may be inverted. 
Let the children give other sentences with the object complements 
written on the board. Let them change the complement but keep 
the same object word. If necessary, question as follows: 

"What else did your mother do to the peaches? 
Who else did anything to them? 
Think, is that all? 

What else can you buy besides quarts of peaches ? 
What else can you buy besides three quarts? 

Insist that the pupils test their object complements and object words 
by the question, 'What?' as, 'What did you buy, or eat, or peel?' 

III. The Predicate Complement 

1. Usage. Third year. Treat the first topic as suggested in the 
beginning lessons on 'What persons are,' 'What animals are,' and 
"What things are.' Have the pupils give series of sentences in the 
manner suggested. In addition, let them, wherever possible, give 
the sentences in the following two forms : 

The fireman is merry. 

The fireman is a merry man. 

My dog is little. 

My dog Fido, is a little dog. 

My dog is a little animal. 

2. Usage and naming. Fourth and fifth years. Let the pupils 
give sentences in the manner suggested in the preceding lessons. 
Arrange the sentences on the board under the following headings : 



Subject. 


Predicate 


The fireman 


is merry. 


The fireman 


is a merry man. 


The fireman 


is a public official. 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 239 

Let the pupils read the sentences, and give (1) the subject, and 
(2) the predicate. Show that the predicate can be still further 
divide, as follows : 

What words make up the predicate ? 

What words tell what kind of a person the fireman is ? 

Read the predicate complement. 

Use the expression, 'Predicate Complement,' as you indicate 
the words to which the term refers. Write the expression on the 
board. Write a series of sentences on the board and ask the pupils 
to give (1) the subject, (2) the predicate, and (3) the predicate 
complement. Do not attempt any formal definition or logical treat- 
ment of the term, as such. Use it simply as a necessary part of the 
lesson and as a form of naming a part of the sentence. If pupils ask 
about the term, tell them that it is used to name the part of the 
sentence that completes the predicate and describes the subject. 

3. Formal analysis. Sixth through eighth years. Present sen- 
tences with predicate complements in the following order of diffi- 
culty : 

(a) Regular order 

1. The peaches are not ripe. 

2. The basket is very heavy. 

3. He is like his brother. 

4. She seemed very weak. 

5. The peaches were considered very good. 

6. It was I (he, she, they). 

7. The peach is a very juicy fruit. 

8. It seemed the best peach in the basket. 

9. Washington was elected president. 

10. He was chosen leader of the continental army. 

(&) Inverted order 

1. Are those peaches ripe ? 

2. Blue was the sky. 

3. How like his brother he is ! 

4. Pale, she looked, and weak. 



240 



SPECIAL METHODS 



5. Very good were those peaches considered by the 

grocer. 

6. I it was. 

7. Most juicy and ripe is that peach. 

8. The best peach in the basket it seemed. 

9. When was Washington elected president ? 

10. Leader of the continental army was he chosen. 

Show the pupils how the predicate complement remains the 
same when the sentence is inverted. Analyse a sentence in the regu- 
lar order, and under it analyse the same sentence in inverted order, 

thus : 



Subject 


Predicate 




That peach 


is 


most juicy and ripe. 


that peach 


is 


Most juicy and ripe. 


Etc., etc. 







Write a series of sentences in regular order on the board. Have 
the pupils read each of the sentences and pick out subject, predi- 
cate, and predicate complement. Let them read the predicate com- 
plement and then select the predicate word. After the sentences 
in the series have been analysed, let the pupils read the sentences 
in inverted order. Write the series on the board in inverted order, 
and have the pupils again analyse the sentences as suggested. 

Write the predicate complements and the predicate words on 
the board as they are selected by the pupils, thus : 



Predicate Complement 



most juicy and ripe 

juicy 

ripe 

very heavy 

heavy 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 241 

Ask the pupils for other sentences with the given predicate 
complements. If necessary question as follows : 

What other fruit is juicy and ripe ? 

What else beside fruit is juicy? 

What other words can you use besides 'is' or 'was?' 

Read the same sentence in inverted form. 



IV. Verb Forms 

1. Usage. Second and third years. Make use of the lessons 
suggested at the beginning of the chapter, on the topics, What per- 
sons, animals, things, do, are, etc. Give the lessons in exactly the 
same manner. Then ask the pupils to read the series of sentences 
on the board with the addition of 'Yesterday,' 'Last week,' 'To- 
morrow,' etc. Use the lessons on 'What persons, etc., are,' for the 
forms of the verb 'is,' as, is, are, was, were, shall be, will be. 

Give lessons to bring out the forms of such verbs as, see, bring, 
go, come, throw, etc. Write such topics on the board as : 

A picnic in the park 

A tramp through the woods 

A visit to the Zoo 

In the assembly room 

At a fire 

In the museum 

Hold the pupils to some one topic. Let each pupil then tell 
what he saw, what he brought, who came, what he threw away, etc. 
Have the pupils give the same sentences with 'We,' 'They,' etc., as 
the persons. Suggest situations, as, At the beginning, entrance, 
school, home, etc., On the road, street, stairs, etc. In a similar 
manner let the pupils tell what they had, what they broke, or ate, 
or wrote, or tore, etc. Ask for sentences with 'I,' or 'We,' or 
'They,' etc. Write a series of sentences on the board as given by 
the pupils, and let them change the time as, 'To-morrow,' 'Yester- 
day,' etc. 



242 SPECIAL METHODS 

2. Usage and naming. Fourth and fifth years. Have the pu- 
pils give sentences in the manner just suggested. Write the time on 
the board as follows : 

Now, or Present I am going home. 

Yesterday, or Past I went home. 

Tomorrow, or Future I shall go h ome. 

Write a, series of sentences on the board as given by the pupils, 
thus : 

We started from the school at 9 o'clock. We went 
through Third avenue. We saw a policeman on the corner. 
A little further on we came to the fire house. There we 
saw the men cleaning the engines. Our teacher went with 
us. We brought along our lunch. Some boys brought 
their bats, balls and gloves. We were told not to throw 
anything into the streets. Some friends came with us. 

Let the pupils read the sentences. Ask them to read each sentence 
and change the form according to the model on the board. Let 
them give the present, past and future forms of the verbs. Have 
them read the sentences with different subjects, as 'They,' 'I,' etc. 

Have the pupils give sentences with object complements as sug- 
gested in the preceding paragraphs. Write a series of the sen- 
tences on the board, thus : 

We gathered apples yesterday. Mother cooked them. 
She made some nice apple cake. We ate some of the cake 
this morning. To-morrow we shall have apple fritters. 

Let the pupils read the sentences and make the object the subject. 
Compare the changed verb forms as follows : 

Active Passive 



gathered were gathered 

were gathering were gathered 

cooked were cooked 

was cooking was cooked 

made was made 

was making was made 

ate was eaten 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 



243 



Let the pupils give other sentences and have them changed in 
a similar manner. Let the pupils change the time to present, past, 
or future and give both active and passive forms. Ask them to 
change the subjects to 'I,' 'They,' etc. 

Study the verbs under the following heads : 



Active 



Passive 



Present 

Past 

Future 



I eat the apple. 
I ate the apple. 
I shall eat the apple. 



It is eaten by me. 
It was eaten by me. 
It will be eaten by me 



Write this model on the board. Then ask the pupils to treat 
the verbs in the sentences as 'eat,' is treated in the model. Change 
the subjects to 'He,' 'They,' etc. Deal in a similar manner with the 
verbs, do, see, come, go, read, write, sing, bring, think, break, catch, 
drive, throw, know, lie, lay, run, tear, etc. Have the pupils first 
give sentences which deal with suggested situations, let them change 
the verb forms in the manner suggested, and then have them for- 
mally study the verb according to the model on the board. Treat 
the verb forms in a series of lessons, using several verbs in each 
lesson. 

3. Formal study and analysis. Sixth through eighth years. 
Let the pupils give sentences as suggested in the preceding section. 
Ask them to read the sentences and change the time, or the voice, or 
the subjects. Carry the study further. Let the pupils change the 
form of each of the verbs according to the following model : 



Active 



Passive 



Present 

Past 

Future 



I eat the apple. 
I ate the apple. 
I shall eat the apple. 



Present perfect I have eaten the apple 
Past perfect I had eaten it. 
Future perfect I shall bave eaten it. 



The apple is eaten by me. 
It was eaten by me. 
It will be eaten by me. 

It has been eaten by me. 
It had been eaten by me. 
It will have been eaten. 



244 SPECIAL METHODS 

Ask the pupils to carry through each verb in the first person, second 
person and third person, in both singular and plural. Use only one 
person at a time, as 'I,' or 'They,' etc. 

In the analysis of sentences, let the pupils pick out the predi- 
cate and the predicate verb. Let the pupils give sentences about 
persons, animals or things, as suggested in the preceding sections. 
Show how the verb may be changed, with the rest of the sentence 
remaining the same. Write down sentences as given by the pupils, 
thus : 

We threw sticks at the apples on the trees. 
Many apples fell to the ground. 
We took home a large basketful of them. 
Mother cooked some of them. 

Question the pupils as follows : 

Ask a question beginning with 'Why.'' 
Ask the same question and begin it with 'May.' 
Begin the sentence with 'Who could have.' 
Keep to the words of the first sentence. 

Write the sentences on the board, thus : 

Why did you throw sticks at the apple tree? 
May we throw some sticks at the apple tree ? 
Who could have thrown sticks at the apple tree ? 

. Analyse the sentences according to the following model : 



Subject 


Predicate 






We 


threw at 


trees 


sticks 


You 




trees 


sticks 


We 






some sticks 



Give a number of sentences like these and have the pupils analyse 
them, and pick out the predicate and the predicate verh. Let 
them change the sentences, and analyse them in the same way. 
Let them do the same thing with the voice changed, and with dif- 
ferent tense forms. Treat the verb 'is' in a similar manner. Let 
the pupils give sentences on what persons, etc., are. Then let them 
change the form of the verb in the sentence according to the model 
on the board, which gives the six tenses. Have them analyse the 
sentences and pick out the predicate verb as suggested above. 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAB 245 

V. Phrase Forms 

1. The prepositional phrase. (a) Usage and naming. Fourth 
and fifth years. Develop sentences in the manner outlined at the 
beginning of the chapter. Deal systematically with persons, ani- 
mals and things. Let the pupils give sentences, and write them on 
the board as follows: 

The baker bakes bread. 
The baker sells rolls. 
He cleans the window. 
He pays his rent. 

Let the pupils further amplify these sentences. Direct them as 
follows : 

When does the baker bake his bread? 
Where does he bake it? 
With what does he bake it? 
By whom is he helped ? 
How long does he bake it? 

Bring out the time, the place, etc., and if necessary suggest the 
form of the answer by asking, 'At what time,' or 'In what place, 
etc' Each topic can be amplified in this manner. 

After several lessons begin to use the term 'Phrase.' Write 
sentences on the board as given by the children, thus : 



The baker bakes bread in the night. 
He bakes it under his store. 



Phrase 



in .... night 
under .... the store 



He bakes it by means of a large oven. by ... . oven 

Ask the pupils to read the sentences and give the phrases in them. 
Write some phrases on the board as follows : 

— in the night. 

during the day. 



In the night 

During the day 



246 SPECIAL METHODS 

Ask the pupils to complete the sentences according- to 'What 
persons do, etc.,' 'What animals do, etc.,' and 'What things do, etc.' 
Direct the class if necessary as follows : 

Name some persons in the neighborhood. 

Name some public officials. 

Tell what each one does when on duty in the night. 

What does he do during the day? 

What else does he do, at home, in the store, on the street? 

Give special lessons on the phrase forms introduced by, in- 
into, in-on-at, off-from, between-among. Write a model on the 
board as follows: 

The baker throws the dough into' the pan. 
He turns the dough round in the pan. 

Suggest different situations and have the pupils use the proper 
phrase, thus : 

Salt, sugar, eggs, milk, flour, raisins, etc. 
Rolls, bread, cake, pie, money, etc. 
Knives, shovels, pans, plates, etc. 

If necessary question as follows : 

Where did he throw the salt? 

Where did he break the eggs? 

Where did the eggs lie? 

Where was the milk ? 

Where did he pour the milk ? 

Other persons as, the butcher, the grocer, the policeman, the fireman, 
etc., will afford situations of a similar character. 

For the use of 'off-from,' write the following on the board: 

What things did you take, or get, or buy, etc. ? 
From what person ? 

What things did you take? 
Off what object? 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 247 

Let the pupils deal systematically with different persons and 
things. For the use of 'in-at-on,' let the pupils complete the fol- 
lowing : 

I live at . 

I live on . 



I reside in city. 

Call on pupils to tell where other persons live, as, the baker, etc. 
Ask the pupils to tell what two streets they live,, between what two 
streets the baker, etc., has his store, and so on. Have the children 
use 'among' in connection with many articles in the store, the home, 
the school, etc. 

(&) Formal study and analysis. Sixth tlirough eighth years. 
Let the pupils deal with phrases as indicated. Take some of the 
sentences and write them on the board, thus : 

The rolls were in the tray. 
I took the rolls off the table. 

Indicate similar processes by taking books off the desk, etc. 
Direct and question the pupils as follows: 

Where are the books now? 
"Where are they now? And now? 

Write the corresponding relations on the board as follows : 

on 

under 
above 
The books are H over the desk. 

near 
in 
beside 

Suggest situations somewhat as follows: 

The baker put the rolls counter. 

He threw some dough dish. 

He sent three loaves to . 

He sent some cake — ■ . 



248 SPECIAL METHODS 

Ask the pupils to fill in the sentences. Deal with other persons and 
things in this manner. 

Analyse some of the phrases as follows : 



Preposition 



under 
into 
to 
in 



Object 



the counter. 



the dish 

my mother 

a large, white box 



Ask the pupils to pick out the phrases in the sentences on the board. 
Let them pick out the phrases in paragraphs in their reading lesson. 
Let them read the phrase, the preposition, and the object word. To 
find the object or the object word, have the pupils ask 'Under what?' 
or 'Into what?' etc. Let the pupils give phrases according to the 
following models : 

The man, with is a baker. 

The baker in is Mr. Jones. 

The cake on belongs to me. 

The book is mine. 

He went to . 

He bought some milk from . 

Your book is in . 

We are now going . 



After the phrases have been filled in, let the pupils analyse them 
as above. 

2. The infinitive phrase, (a) Usage and naming. Fourth 
and fifth years. Let the pupils amplify sentences which deal with 
persons, animals and things in the manner indicated in the first 
section of the chapter. Select a topic and have the pupils give sen- 
tences. Write some of the best sentences on the board, thus : 

The firemen slid down the poles. 
They rode to the fire. 
They used four lines of hose. 
They carried ladders to the roof 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 249 

Ask the pupils to tell 'Why' the different things were done. Write 
some of the sentences on the hoard, thus : 

The firemen slid down the poles to save time. 

They slid down to get down as quickly as possible. 

To stop the fire from spreading, they used four lines of 

hose. 
They used four lines of hose to save the rear wall. 

Let the pupils explain the 'Why?' of different activities and 
processes. Let them tell, step by step, how different things are 
made, in the ,home, in the factory, and in the school. Let them tell 
why the heroes in story and history acted as they did. Upon the 
basis of what has been given by the pupils, let them use the phrase 
in other ways. Write sentences like the following on the board: 

The firemen tried to . 

They wanted to . 



They were anxious to . 

They were willing to . 

The firemen made a brave attempt to . 

Let the pupils fill in each of the sentences in as many ways as 
possible. Give the lessons in either of two ways : ( 1 ) by taking one 
kind of phrase, e. g., the 'Why?' form and dealing with several 
persons or activities, or (2) by taking all kinds of phrases and 
dealing with only one person or activity in the lesson. 

Name the phrases as follows : 

Phrase 



The firemen tried to save the 

rear wall from burning. I to ... . burning 

They wanted to put out the fire. I to ... . fire. 

Ask the pupils to give the phrases in other sentences according 
to the model. Let them read the sentence, and then tell what the 
infinitive phrase is. Write incompleted sentences on the board for 
the pupils to fill in, thus : 

■ : to save time. 

1 to save himself from being hurt. 



To save time 

To save himself from being hurt 



250 SPECIAL METHODS 

Let the pupils give the sentence and then pick out the phrase. 

(6) Formal study and analysis. Sixth through eighth years. 
Give separate lessons on the infinitive used as (1) object, (2) ad- 
jective modifier, (3) adverbial modifier, etc. Correlate with the 
history and the literature of the grade. Let the pupils tell what 
the different explorers, statesmen, inventors, writers, business men, 
etc., tried, or attempted, or desired, or wanted, etc. Write incom- 
pleted sentences on the board as follows : 

tried to 



wanted to r— 
knew how to 
asked him to 
told him to — 



Take some of the sentences given by the pupils and analyse the 
phrases as follows : 



Principal word 



to cross 
to find 



Object 



the Delaware 

a northwest passage to India. 



Let the pupils analyse phrases in a similar manner. Let them 
pick out phrases from sentences on the board, from passages in 
the reader or history, etc. Call for the infinitive object noun phrase, 
or the infinitive adjective phrase, etc., as the case may be. In 
other lessons present the adjective phrase, the adverbial phrase, 
etc. Connect the phrases with such expressions as 'attempt to,' 
'ambitions to,' etc., 'anxious to.' 'sorry to,' etc. Let the pupils 
tell why the persons spoken about acted as they did. Write the 
sentences on the board as given by the pupils, and have them ana- 
lyse as above. 

3. The participial phrase, (a) Usagi and naming. Fourth 
and fifth years. Base the lessons on sentences which tell 'What 
happens to persons, animals, things, etc.,' and 'What persons, ani- 
mals, things, do, etc' Suggest some topic or activity, as, The 
baker, Putting out a fire, etc. Write incompleted forms on the 
board as follows : 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 251 



While , the baker 

While , he 



Having , he 

Having , 



Write sentences on the board as given by the pupils. Let them 
read the sentences, and pick out the phrase in much the same man- 
ner as that outlined in the above section. Keep to the simpler 
forms. 

(5) Formal study and analysis. Sixth through eighth years. 
Let the pupils give sentences in the manner outlined above. Cor- 
relate with the history and literature of the grade. Have them 
give the sentence, and analyse the phrase according to the follow- 
ing model : 



Principal word 


Object 


putting 
having brought 


the doughnuts over the fire, 
the bread 



Ask for the verb from which the participal comes, as 'Putting, from 
to put,' 'Having brought, from to bring,' etc. 

VI. Sentence Forms 

1. Simple and compound sentences. In the lower grades, as 
the children ramble along in their oral work, giving sentence after 
sentence connected by 'and,' write some of their sentences on the 
board. Strike out the 'ands' and make simple sentences. Substi- 
tute capital and period f6r each unnecessary 'and.' In the upper 
grades this is also necessary at times. In the fourth and fifth years 
give exercises in the amplification of sentences. Base the lesson 
on a specific activity or situation. Write sentences on the board as 
follows : 

The baker baked some bread and his man -. 

He bakes bread and we . 

We bought some rolls, but we — — . 

The cake is good, but the pie — — . 
Rolls are good, but we 



Bread costs five cents, but cake 



252 SPECIAL METHODS 

Ask the pupils to fill the sentences in, in as many ways as pos- 
sible. Write a series of sentences on the board, thus : 

During the night the baker makes bread, cakes and 
rolls. In the morning he sells them. I like bread. My 
brother likes rolls. Bread is good. Kolls are better be- 
cause they are baked through and through. Pie is good. 
Cake is better because it has not so much crust. We buy 
bread and rolls. On Sunday we get some cake. 

Let the pupils connect the proper sentences with 'and' or 'but.' 
Construct similar series on such topics as, In the butcher shop, In 
the grocer's, Arresting a man, Putting out a fire, Selling goods, 
Settling in the new world, Making, a dam, Planting a seed, etc. 

In the fourth and fifth years, have the pupils change a sen- 
tence of any type into a question, or a command. Use the terms, 
Statement or declarative sentence, Question or interrogative sen- 
tence, Command or imperative sentence. Write these expressions 
on the board. Write a model on the board as follows : 

Statement or declarative sentence : The baker bakes bread. 
Question or interrogative sentence: What does the baker make? 
Command or imperative sentence : Send me three loaves of 

bread to-day. 

Let the pupils give sentences like the above on specified topics. 

2. The complex sentence. In the lower grades let the pupils 
amplify the type sentences. Select some topic as suggested in the 
preceding paragraphs, and let the pupils give sentences according 
to the type forms. Write these sentences on the board with the ad- 
ditions indicated, thus: 

The baker adds water and milk to the flour because . 

We buy rolls because . 

Bread is cheaper than cake, because . 



Ask the pupils to complete the sentences in as many ways as 
possible. Give lessons with sentences of the following type : 

When the fat began to boil, the baker . 



When the dough has been shaped, the baker 

The baker, who is a very good-natured man. 

Mr. Smith, who is our baker. 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 



253 



Base sentences on situations like those given in the preceding 
paragraphs. Make use of other conjunctions, as, before, while, al- 
though, after, until, etc. In the higher grades let the pupils give 
sentences as indicated above. In addition, have them read each 
sentence, and give the principal clause and the dependent. Intro- 
duce the terms, Complex sentence, Adjective clause, and Adverbial 
clause. Let the pupils pick out the clauses in selections in the 
reader or history. Treat the noun clause in the same fashion. 

3. Formal analysis. Do not attempt the analysis of the sen- 
tence until the pupils are familiar with analysis of the parts as 
outlined in the preceding sections. Then spend considerable time 
on the different variations of the simple sentence before passing 
to the compound or complex forms. Let the pupils analyse accord- 
ing to some such model as the following : 

On a cold and stormy night, George Washington, com- 
mander of the American forces, tried to cross the frozen 
Delaware. 



S. D. S. 

S. N. George Washington P. V. tried 0. C. to 

on night 



Delaware 



commander 
of forces 
the 
American 



a 

cold 

stormy 



In. 0. N. Ph. to cross the frozen Delaware. 
In. V. to cross 0. C. Delaware 



the 
frozen 



VII. Nouns and Pronoun 



1. Naming. In the upper grades the pupils should be familiar 
with different persons, places and things as named in the type sen- 
tences. After the pupils- have given sentences telling what persons, 
etc., do, are, etc., begin to refer to the words as name words or 



254 SPECIAL METHODS 

nouns. Ask the pupils to give sentences with different name words 
or nouns as subjects. In the analysis of sentences, refer to the 
subject noun or pronoun. Ask the pupils to pick out subject 
nouns, or object nouns. In the series of sentences on the board, 
underline the nouns or pronouns in the sentences. Make a list of 
them under the heading, Noun or Pronoun. Ask the pupils for 
other nouns and have them tell whether the nouns given are names 
of persons, things, etc. 

2. Person and number. In having the pupils change the form 
of type sentences, ask them to use the first person, or 'I,' the third 
person, or 'He,' etc. Do this in the higher grades. Write a series 
of sentences on the board as follows : 

The baker awoke early in the morning. He put on 
his white apron and started to carry some rolls upstairs 
when a customer called him. The customer asked him for 
some bread. The baker put his rolls down and handed his 
customer a loaf of bread. He took the money and put it in 
his cash drawer. 

Ask the pupils to read the sentences with the first person, or 'I.' 
Direct and question as follows : 

Read the sentences with the first person or 'I.' 

I want the class to note all the changes. 

"What words go with ' I ' all through ? 

Who can write the different forms of 'I' as used? 

Let the pupils use the second person or 'You.' Change to the 
plural forms. Ask the pupils to tell the story in the plural, or with 
more than one baker. Then let them use the first person or 'We,' 
and question as above. Do not attempt to cover the forms with 
any mystery or seek to entangle the pupils with formal definitions. 
Let them use the different forms as they usually do in conversa- 
tion and written work. Let the pupils construct similar para- 
graphs, and have them ehange the form of the nouns and pronouns 
as indicated. 

3. Gender and case. Use a paragraph like the one above, 
and let the pupils read it with 'She,' or the feminine gender. Com- 
pare the forms, 'T-niy-mo,' 'TTe-his-hini,' etc., as used in the sen- 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 255 

tences. Ask the pupils what part of the sentence the 'I' and the 
'me,' or the 'he,' and the 'him' are used as. Connect the terms, 
'subject, or nominative case, I,' and 'object, or objective case, me.' 
Let the pupils give type sentences with object complements. Have 
them use different pronouns as object words. Then ask them to 
use the same pronouns as subject words. If possible give these 
lessons with lessons on the active and passive forms of the irregu- 
lar verbs. 

VIII. Article, Adjective and Adverb 

1. Article and Adjective. In the higher grades ask the pupils 
to tell more about the persons, etc., given in the type sentences. 
Question as follows: 

You say that the fireman played the hose. 

What kind of a fireman was he ? 

What else can you say about him ? 

Tell about his size, appearance, manner, expression, etc. 

Write a series of type sentences on the board and have the 
pupils amplify the different subjects or objects. In lessons on 
'What persons, animals and things are,' ask the pupils to give as 
many qualities or characteristics as possible. Begin to use the 
term, 'Adjective.' Ask the pupils to give other 'adjectives.' Let 
them tell what words in the type sentences are used as adjectives. 
Ask them to use adjective modifiers as predicate complements, and 
the reverse. Refer to the words, 'The, an, or, a,' simply as 'Ar- 
ticles. ' 

Use the lessons on 'What things, etc., are,' as the basis for the 
use of the comparative. Write the sentences on the board. Ques- 
tion as follows : 

The lion is terrible. 

What animal do you think is more terrible ? 

What animal is less terrible? 

Of the two animals, which is more terrible? 

Name two other animals. What are they both ? 

Which of the two is bigger ? 



256 SPECIAL METHODS 

Let the pupils tell what they like. Ask them why they prefer 
one to the other. Present two objects in the room and ask the 
pupils to express a choice, with the reason. Question as follows : 

Of these two books, which do you prefer? 
Why do you like this one better than that? 
Which of the two is prettier ? 
Which is heavier? Better? More attractive? 

Compare pupils, object, studies, two by two, and ask the pupils 
to judge which of the two is bigger, or smaller, or better, or worse, 
or cleaner, or heavier, etc. Write the two forms of the adjective 
on the board, thus : 

Positive Comparative 

big bigger 

small smaller 

good better 

bad worse 

clean cleaner 

heavy heavier 

terrible more terrible 

After a few lessons on the comparative form, let the pupils continue 
with the comparison and give the ' Superlative or highest. ' 

2. The adverb. In lessons on the type forms, ask the pupils to 
amplify the verb. Write the sentences on the board as suggested 
in the beginning of the chapter. Question as follows : 

How does your dog run up? 
How does he growl? 
How does he lie down? 

Write the sentences on the board with the amplifications. Ask 
the pupils to read each sentence and pick out the adverbs. Use 
the term, 'Adverb,' in asking the pupils to give other adverbs. Let 
the pupils read passages in the reader and pick out the adverbs. 
Let them change the adverbs, give different ones, add adverbs, etc. 



LANGUAGE — GRAMMAR 257 

Treat comparison as in the case of the adjective. After a series of 
sentences with adverbs have been given by the pupils, write them 
on the board and question as follows: 

What animal runs more quickly? 

Name some other animal. "Which of the three runs most 

quickly ? 
Which animal runs most slowly? 
How else can they run? 

Let the pupils pick out adverbs and give the comparative and 
superlative degrees. Use sentences on the board and passages from 
the reader for this purpose. 

IX. General Suggestions. 

Before giving a lesson on the analysis of sentences, or on the 
parts of speech, look over the topics and the lessons outlined in the 
first twenty pages of Chapter IX. Get as much material as possible 
from the pupils. Base the lesson on some definite topics which are 
close to the children's experiences and interests. Use the type 
sentences in the manner outlined, and then have the pupils amplify 
these sentences according to the aim of the lesson. After the pupils 
are familiar with persons, animals, places and things, and with 
what they do, etc., develop changes and modifications. Introduce 
names, as, conjunctions, etc., when it is necessary to call attention 
to some particular language form. 



CHAPTER XI 
GEOGRAPHY — VISUAL 

I. Human Activities and Their Products 

1. The neighborhood. Third and fourth years. Lead the pupils 
to study in a systematic manner the activities of the neighborhood. 
Ask them to tell what stores they deal with. Direct and question 
as follows : 

How many go errands for their mothers? 

What are you sent for? 

Where do you go for it? 

What do you call the stores? 

Yes. What other stores sell bread? 

Where do you buy meat ? Where else ? 

What other things do you eat ? 

What did you have for breakfast? For dinner? 

As the children give the names, write them on the board as follows: 

Where we go What we get there 

Bakery Bread, rolls, cake, pie, etc. 

Dairy Milk, eggs, bread, cheese, butter, crackers, 

etc. 
Butcher store Meat, lard, fat, etc. 
Delicatessen Bread, sausage, cooked meat, canned 

goods, etc. 
Dry grocery Bread, milk, cheese, butter, eggs, canned 
goods, coffee, tea, cocoa, crackers, etc. 

Lead the children to tell how the food is sold, how it is prepared, 
how it keeps, etc. Write the following topics on the board : 

How is it sold? 

How much does it cost? 

How is it prepared for eating? 

Does it keep ? How long does it keep ? 

258 



GEOGRAPHY 259 

Let the pupils treat each of the foods under these headings. Ask 
the pupils to nanie the different kinds of bread, the kinds of meat, 
the names of the foods which are put up in cans, and so on. 

In another lesson take up the topics of clothing and shelter. 
Question the pupils as follows: 

Where do you buy clothing? 

What? All your clothing? Your shoes, too? 

Where do you get hats? Waists.' 1 

Write down the names as given by the children, thus : 

Where we go What we get there 



Clothing store Suits, hats, waists, etc. 

Shoe store Shoe, rubbers 

Hat store Hats 

Millinery store Hats, trimmings 

Department store Everything 

In connection with shelter, question as follows : 

What do we call the man who builds the house? 
What kind of work is done in the building of a house ? 
Who lays the floors? Who puts in doors and windows? 
Who lays the brick? The foundations ? Thereof? 
Who puts in the pipes? The wires? 
Suppose a pipe leaks, whom do you call? 
Who fixes a broken pane of glass? 

Write down the names somewhat as follows : 

Workman What he does 



Builder Builds houses 

Carpenter Works in wood 

Cabinet maker Works in fine woods 

Bricklayer Lays bricks 

Mason Cuts stone 

Plumber Fixes pipes, etc. 

Have, the pupils tell what material is used, how it is made up, 
what tools are used, how they are used, the durability of the ma- 
terial, etc.. One or more lessons can be given according, to the 
detail presented. i ,. ,,., a 



260 SPECIAL METHODS 

Take up the question of transportation. Question as follows: 

How did you get to the store? 

Do you always walk to the store? 

How does the grocer get his goods? 

How do they get to the market? How else? 

Write the names on the board as follows : 

Name Power Place 



Wagon 


Horse 


Land 


Railroad 


Steam, electricity 


Land 


Automobile 


Electricity, gasoline 


Land 


Boat 


Steam 


Water 


Car 


Steam, electricity 


Land 



Ask the pupils to trace the travels of some article and tell how 
it reaches the store, as, by boat over the ocean, through canal, lake, 
river, etc., or by rail over road, or street, or avenue, etc. Have 
them name the different stopping places, as, field, city, warehouse, 
factory, store, etc. 

Let the pupils read of the foods eaten by other people. Tell 
them stories of how other people live. Show them pictures « of 
strange people. Draw pictures of utensils other than those used at 
home. Compare the different ways of preparing foods. Write a. 
series of names on the board, thus : 



Wheat 


Rye 


Potatoes 


Rice 


Tapioca 


Sago 


Meat 


Fish 


Cheese 


Eggs 


Chicken 


Milk 


Milk 


Coffee 


Tea 


Wine 


Beer 


Whiskey 



Show how other people use rye, or rice, or tapioca, instead of 
the wheat that we use in our bread. Compare the meat used here 
with the fish used in China, or the cheese and eggs used in other 
countries. Compare the foods used in the hot lands with the foods, 
used by the Eskimos and the Laplanders. Read interesting 
accounts, tell stories and let the pupils read of the customs and 
manners of other nations and races. In the same way present pic- 
tures and have the pupils read of the clothing worn by other races. 
Compare the means of transportation with that in other lands. The 
number of lessons given will depend upon the material which the- 
teacher is able to collect. 



GEOGRAPHY 



261 



Take some article of food, or clothing, or shelter, and trace it 
to its origin in the raw product. Show the different stages in .its 
manufacture. Question somewhat as follows: 

What is your waist made of? 

What was it before it was made into a waist? In the 

factory ? 
What is the cloth made of? 
How are the threads built up ? Pull one apart. 
What is the plant called? 
Where does it grow? 

Question in a similar manner on the coat, shoes, tie, hat, desk, paper, 
pen, etc Draw a sketch on the board as follows: 






Plant 



Cotton Thread Cotton ffoods 



If possible, show the raw material, different stages of its manu- 
facture, and the finished product. Manufacturers will often supply 
these. Deal in this manner with other topics, as, wool, silk, linen, 
leather. 



Write the stages of growth and manufacture on the board, thus : 



262 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Material 



cotton 

wool 

leather 

silk 



Source 



plant 

sheep 

silkworm 

cattle 



Raw prod. 


Man. prod 


cotton 


cotton 




goods 


wool 


cloth 


silk 


silk 


hides 


leather 



Man. articles 



waists, stockings, shirts, 

thread, bags, etc. 
coats, gloves, underwear, etc. 
ties, waists, gloves, etc. 
shoes, harness, gloves, etc. 



Call upon the children to name as many manufactured articles 
as possible. Repeat the development outlined in the above para- 
graphs for foods, building materials, etc. Begin with the foods 
usually eaten by the children, as, bread, cake, meat, etc. Question 
pupils individually as suggested. Sketch the passage of the food 
from its source to its present form. Outline the different stages as 
just given. 

After the pupils have taken up the different products in this 
manner, present the industries which are supported by the products. 
Take up some topic, as, Cotton growing. Show pictures of cotton 
fields. If possible, have specimens of cotton and the cotton plant. 
Let the pupils read of interesting stories connected with" the plant- 
ing and raising of cotton. Make a sketch of the cotton plant on the 
board. Tell how cotton is raised, what climate is needed, what soil, 
etc. Write on the board the number of people employed in the 
raising of cotton, the annual yield, the money which the cotton is 
worth, the export of cotton, and the part of the country which pro- 
duces cotton. In this manner present other topics, as, Raising 
wheat, Growing corn, Raising cattle, Preparing beef, Mining coal, 
etc. Deal in a systematic manner with the different occupations, 
as, agriculture grazing, mining, manufacturing, etc. 

2. The United States and other countries. Fifth and sixth 
years. Connect the lessons with the pupils' home and neighborhood 
life. Direct and question the pupils as follows : 

What do you eat almost every day? 
What else do you eat .' 
Name sonic other foods. 



Write the mimes of the foods en the board as given by the children. 
Leave out those of less account. Rapidly sketch a map on the 
board as follows: 



GEOGRAPHY 



263 




Fill in the areas which produce the chief foods. Name the foods. 
Question the pupils again. Let them tell what their clothing is 
made of, what material is used in the construction of the school 
building, etc. Fill in the map with the names and areas of the 
products mentioned by the children. 

Classify the different products according to the .following 
scheme : 



Food 



Clothing 



Shelter 



Wheat 


Cotton 


Coal 


Corn 


"Wool 


Iron 


Rice 


Leather 


Lumber 


Sugar 




Copper 


Beef 






Pork 






Mutton 






Salt 







Ask the pupils to classify the products under the following heads 
Vegetable Animal Mineral 



264 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Let them arrange the general heads of Food, Clothing, Shelter, 
and tell which of the foods is vegetable, which animal, and which 
mineral. Ask them to do the same with the other products. 

Spend some time on the formal study of the products and the 
areas which yield the products. Draw a blank map on the board. 
Point to an area, and have pupils tell what animal product, or what 
vegetable product, etc., is raised there. Name some product and 
ask pupils to point to the part of the map which indicates where the 
food is raised. Name some part of the map and have pupils tell the 
corresponding food area. "Write down ten of the leading products 
in the order of their importance. Have the pupils study the list. 
Direct them as follows: 

Read over the names of the products. 

Look at the first three. Look again. 

Close your eyes. Try to repeat the names to yourself. 

Look at the board. Eead over the first five names. 

Look at the first five names. Look again. Read them. 

Close eyes. Who can repeat the five names? 

Test individual pupils by having them come to the front of the 
room and read off the five names from memory. Make sure that the 
pupils are actually looking carefully at the names, and not simply 
opening and closing eyes in a mechanical manner. Let the pupils 
study the next five in this manner, and then the whole ten at once. 

Write the products on the board as indicated above. Ask the 
pupils to tell what industries are based on them. Arrange the 
industries somewhat as follows : 



Agriculture 


Mining 


Grazing 


Manufacturing 


Wheat raising 


Coal 


Cattle 


Cotton manufactures 


Corn raising 


Iron 


Sheep 


Woolen manufactures 


Cotton, etc. 


Gold 

Silver 
Salt 


Hogs 


Iron and steel, etc. 



Ask the pupils to give further details, as, the different forms in 
which the products are used or sold, the names of manufactured 
articles, etc. Write on the board the number of people employed 
in the different occupations, the amount of products, goods, articles, 
etc., made, and the leading areas and manufacturing centers. Indi- 



GEOGRAPHY 



265 



cate the same thing on a map. Show the pupils pictures of the 
different industries, and ask them to look for other illustrations. 
Show labels which indicate the product and the area of production. 
Let the pupils read about the industries. 

In taking up the particular states or groups of states, begin 
with the home state, and deal with home products. Introduce the 
subject in much the same manner as that outlined above. Draw a 
map on the board and fill it in as follows : 




Let the pupils group the products, tell about the industries, etc., 
as outlined in the preceding paragraphs. Write a list of products 
on the board and direct the pupils in the visual study of the list. 
Treat the industries in the same manner. Pass to groups of states 
or to other sections of the country and present the occupations and 
products in much the same manner. 

Introduce the study of the occupations and products in other 
countries by means of products known to the pupils. Thus, coffee 
will lead to Brazil, tea to India or China, sulphur to Mexico, manu- 
factured goods to England or Germany, and so on. Compare some 
industry in the United States with a similar industry in the other 



266 



SPECIAL METHODS 



country, as, wheat raising or lumbering in Canada. If possible, 
have specimens or pictures of the products or manufactured articles. 
Illustrate how the product is raised, how the men or women work 
to get it, how long they work, how they live, what they earn, etc. 
Draw rough sketches on the board as you tell the story. Make 
drawings of the implements or machinery employed, and explain 
how they are used. Do not throw a list of names at the pupils and 
expect them to study words which may be barren and unknown to 
them. After the leading products have been presented in the 
manner suggested, draw a map of the country on the board. Fill in 
the areas of production, and put in the names of the products. Let 
the pupils arrange the products under the headings, food, clothing 
and shelter, or animal, vegetable and mineral. Ask them to place 
the names in a blank map. Let them study the list of products 
visually as suggested in the case of the United States. 

3. Other countries. Seventh and eighth years. Let the pupils 
study the leading industries in the world, aud the resulting products. 
Select some topic, as, "Wheat raising. Have pictures or specimens 
of wheat. Give a list of the food products made from wheat. Show 
pictures of wheat fields. Tell how wheat is raised, what tools are 
needed, what machinery is employed, etc. As you explain, illustrate 
by blackboard sketches. Show how the men work, how they live, 
what they earn, etc. Let the pupils tell what conditions are needed 
for the cultivation of wheat, under the headings, Climate, and Soil. 
Show the comparative yield of wheat by means of a diagram like 
the following: 

WH£ AT — »0O MILLION 




GEOGRAPHY 



267 



By means of rough blackboard sketches explain how flour is made. 
Write the names of the leading centers for the distribution of flour. 
In the same way present other industries, as, Cotton raising, Cattle 
raising, Coal mining, "Wool growing, Canning fish, etc. 

Lead the pupils to judge what products can be raised in a 
country according to the conditions existing. For example, draw a 
map of Europe on the board. Question the pupils as follows : 

Can you grow wheat so high north ? Why not ? 
Where is the climate mild enough? 
Why can not cotton be grown in Europe ? 
Where is rye grown? 

Outline the countries, and mark out the productive areas with 
the names of the products. Let the pupils study the map, make lists, 
and study the lists in the manner outlined above. Compare the 
needs of some countries with the products of others, and let the 
pupils form a tentative schedule of exports and imports. Correct 
these lists and have the pupils study them in the manner suggested. 

II. Human Habitations 

1. The home. Third and fourth years. Ask some of the pupils 
where they live. Make a drawing of a house, somewhat as follows : 




4 1 UH I II *iUW *W»fc— WW* 



268 SPECIAL METHODS 

As you draw the house, question and explain as follows : 

How many stories high is the house you live in ? 

How high are the rooms ? Measure this room. 

How high would the house be then ? 

How do you get to your rooms ? 

How are the rooms ventilated? 

How are they heated? 

Tell what the different rooms are used for ? 

Have I left anything out in my drawing? 

Have the pupils explain why houses have so many stories, why 
the doors are locked at night, how the refuse is removed, and so on. 
Question them further as follows : 

Suppose we keep all the windows closed ? 
What kind of air must we have? 
In the winter what must we have? 

Write on the board the following requirements for rooms : 

Ventilation 

Heat and light 

Protection from the weather, from enemies, etc. 

Use rooms are put to 

Size and shape 

In a series of lessons present the homes of other people. Take 
up a description of the tent of the Indian, the snow house of the 
Eskimo, the tree dwellings in India, etc. Show pictures of the 
houses and the people, make sketches on the board to illustrate the 
parts of the house, and let the pupils read about them. Make a 
small model of a tent, or hut, etc., and have it in the 'Geography 
corner.' Write the above topics on the board and ask the pupils to 
tell how the tent is ventilated, heated, etc., how it is closed, guarded, 
and so on. 

2. The home town or city. Fourth year. Develop the idea of 
the town or city as a place where men and women get their living. 
Question as follows : 

Why are so many people in the city? 

What are they doing there? 

Why does not your father live in Newark, or Boston? 

What else do men do in the city? 

Name some of the occupations in the city. 



GEOGRAPHY 



269 



Draw an outline map of the city 
somewhat like the following : 




As the pupils answer, locate some of the industries and write 
the names on the map. Indicate where ships enter and depart, 
where trains run, etc. Mark out the business section of the town, 
the city hall, the residential section, the car lines, etc. Show where 
the school and the neighborhood are situated. Point out that all 
the residences, car lines, retail stores, etc., are dependent upon the 
industries which afford men and women a livelihood. 

Have two large maps in front of the room, one a bird's-eye 
map such as can be bought or obtained for nothing at real estate 
and similar offices, and another a map of the city streets and ear 
lines. Question the pupils as follows : 

How many pupils have gone on excursions in the city? 
What places have you visited? 

Who has seen Central Park? Bronx Park? City Hali 
Park? 



270 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Write the names of the parks on the board. Tell how to get 
there. Show pictures of the parks and different views of the places 
of interest in the parks. Point to the map and locate the parks. 
Tell stories of how the park is kept, how it was built, what it is for, 
etc. Arrange to take the children on a trip to one of the parks. In 
the same way present other topics, as, public buildings, statues and 
memorials, large business houses, piers, railroad stations, places of 
historic interest, etc. Do not give them simply as names which must 
be studied and located. Show pictures of them, tell stories, make 
sketches on the board to illustrate the general aspect, let the pupils 
read about them, and so on. Deal with one or more topics in a 
systematic manner. 

Let the pupils study the map of the city in a more formal 
manner. Draw a map on the board as follows : 




Direct and question as follows : 

Read the name of the city. Of all the Boroughs. 

Which is the largest Borough"? The smallest? 

Which has the most people in it? 

How will you travel from Manhattan to Richmond 

What will it cost to get there? 

How else could you get there? 



GEOGRAPHY 



271 



Let them study the map visually, thus : 

Look at the map. Read the names to yourselves. 
Close eyes. Try to see the map and remember the names. 
Open eyes. See if you got the names right. 
Close eyes. Think of the most southerly Borough. 
What Borough is nearest to Jersey? 

Rub out the names on the map. Ask the pupils to name the 
Borough as you point to it. Name a Borough and let the pupils 
point at the map. Let them name the rivers, the islands, and the 
chief lighthouses. Ask them for the names of the streets opposite 
which the islands are situated. 

Show by means of illustrations and blackboard sketches how 
the city grew. Make a drawing like the following on the board : , 



«— —»*ii»«nnij,ijm 




Question the pupils, thus 



Why were there not so many houses in the settlement ? 

What did the people do for a living in those days ? 

What do we call a collection of houses like those in the 

picture ? 
Where can we now find villages? Where else? 

Tell how the city was settled and developed. Tell stories about, 
or let the pupils read accounts of Henry Hudson, Adrian Block, 
early settlements of the Dutch, the purchase of Manhattan Island, 



272 SPECIAL METHODS 

and so on. Explain how a town differs from a city, and a village 
from a town. Show pictures of villages and towns in other countries. 

3. Distance and direction. Third and fourth years. Teach 
distance and direction as distance and direction towards or from 
some definite locality. Draw a map of the school and the surround- 
ing streets on the hoard as follows: 

ui 



JU 



^1 11 ST 




Hang up placards in the north, south, east and west parts of the 
room, and label them. Direct and question the pupils as follows : 

Step up in front of the room, Smith. 

What street do you live in? 

Point to it. Point to the East River. 

Show the pupils what northeast, or northwest means. Ask them 
in what direction the downtown cars go, where the City Hall is, 
where parks, important buildings, etc., are situated. Let the pupils 
give the names of the bodies of land or water on the north, east, 
south, or west of the city. Show a map of the city and hold it 
flat, so that the directions correspond with the directions marked 
in the room. Hang it upright and show what positions the direc- 
tions occupy. Point out what part of the city the sun rises in, and 
where it sets at night. 

In teaching distance, begin with the classroom and work out- 
wards. Direct and question as follows: 

How high is the room? How wide? How long? 
If the room is thirteen feet, how high is the building? 
How big are the school yards? 

If there are twenty blocks to a mile, how many feet in a. 
block? 



GEOGRAPHY 273 

Let the pupils tell how far the school is from the nearest park, 
from the City Hall, from the Battery, from Harlem, etc. Draw a 
map and indicate how long the city is and how wide it is at different 
places. Show by a diagram like the following the location of the 
city relative to other cities and countries, as, Albany, Washington, 
Chicago, England, France, Germany, Italy, etc.: 



f\UBf\Ny # 



CH, M^ 




Let the pupils tell how wide the Atlantic Ocean is, how long 
the Hudson River is, etc. Ask them to tell how long it will take a 
train to get to Albany at the rate of thirty miles an hour ; how long 
at the rate of forty miles an hour? Let them work out how many 
miles a train travels that reaches Chicago in eighteen hours; in 
twenty four hours; in thirty six hours? Ask them the rate of travel 
of steamships that cross the Atlantic in ten, twelve, fifteen, etc., days. 

4. The world. Fourth and fifth years. After the foods, homes, 
etc., of other people have been presented, show the pupils where 
some of these people live. Question the pupils as follows : 

Of what nationality is the butcher? The grocer? 
Where does the coal man come from? 
What other nations have people here? 

Write down the nationalities as they are given, and add others. 
Draw a rough map of Europe on the board. Mark off the different 
countries and name them as follows : 



274 



SPECIAL METHODS 




Indicate size, distance, etc. Name a leading city in each country, 
as, London, Dublin, Paris, Berlin, Rome, etc. Let the pupils tell 
of other cities of which they know. Show the position of the. coun- 
tries on a large world map or globe and call attention to the names 
Old World, New "World, Europe, etc. 

Spend some time on a formal study of the map. Draw a map 
on the board something like the above. Direct and question the 
pupils : 

Look at the northern part of Europe. 
Begin with Spain and read the names up to Russia. 
Take the southern part. Begin with Spain. 
What countries have been left out? 
Now look as I point, Spain, Prance, Germany, Russia. 
Close eyes. Who can name them in order. 
Look at the map again. 

Now look as I point. Spain, France. Italy, Austria- 
Hungary, Russia. 
Close eyes, etc. 



GEOGRAPHY 275 

Take the large countries in this manner. Then show the posi- 
tions of the smaller countries relative to the large, as, Denmark 
north of Germany, Turkey south of Austria-Hungary, and separated 
from Russia by Roumania, Servia, and Bulgaria, Greece south of 
Turkey, etc. After a careful visual study, rub out the names on 
the map. Point to a country and have the pupils name it. Name a 
country and let pupils point to the map. Take up a formal study 
of the more important cities in this way. Ask for only one or two 
for each country. Deal with any of the other continents in the same 
manner 

5. The United States and other countries. Fifth and sixth 
years. Lead the pupils to look upon the cities of a country as some- 
thing more than names or dots on a map. Make a close study of one 
or more large cities. Draw a map on the board and indicate routes 
of commerce, thus: 



Question the pupils: 



What do the railroads carry into New York? 

"Where do these products come from? 

"Where do they go? How do they go? 

What employment is offered to men and women because of 

them? 
What comes from board? What is exported? 



276 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Make drawings of one or two other important cities, as Chicago 
or Philadelphia, thus: 




Take some city further inland, as, Pittsburg, Minneapolis, or 
Kansas City, and show the reason for its prosperity as follows : 




GEOGRAPHY 



277 



Show pictures of the leading industries, of the streets and places 
of interest, of the people at work, etc. Tell how the people live, how 
long they work, what they earn, and the like. 

Let the pupils look at the map of the United States and pick 
out ten or twelve harbors of note along the Eastern coast. Have 
them read what each harbor is used for, what the city is noted for. 
and the approximate population. "Write the ten or twelve names 
on the board, with the name of the state immediately after each city. 
Let the pupils study these names, visually, three or four at a time. 
Ask the pupils to name the city when you give the name of the 
state, and vice versa. Draw a map on the board and have the pupils 
name the city and state as you point to it. Let them point as you 
give the names. Write the names on the map and have the class 
study them visually, and proceed as just suggested. Take up other 
cities in the same way. Let the pupils look up the ports around the 
Great Lakes, along the Mississippi, and on the Pacific. Let them 
pick out the important railroad centers along the Eastern border, 
through the country from East to West, and in the West. Take 
each series of from five to ten cities and treat them in the manner 
outlined. In the study of cities of other countries pursue the same 
method. Connect the city with some industry or product, illustrate 
the topics fully, draw a map of the city, question, etc., and then let 
the pupils study the leading cities in a more formal manner. 



6. Distance and direction. Fifth through eighth years. Make 
a sketch on the board to indicate how the larger cities are connected, 
thus : 




278 SPECIAL METHODS 

Bring out the reasons for these connections, thus : 

How does wheat get to New York? Why is it sent there? 
Where else is it sent? Why is not New York the only 

place ? 
Why is cotton sent to New York ? Where else is it sent ? 
Why are there different stopping places? 
Name the more important centers of distribution. 
What goods are sent out? 

Ask the pupils to estimate distances on the map- on some given 
basis, as, from New York to Albany. As the pupils give distances, 
correct them and write them on the lines of connection between the 
different cities. Let the pupils give the length and breadth of the 
country, the length and breadth of the home state, the distance 
across the Atlantic Ocean, etc. Bring railroad maps into the class- 
room, and let the pupils bring in maps of the routes of railroads and 
steamships. Mount several of the better maps and pass them round 
the room. Have some hung up for reference. 

Outline some imaginary trip which one of the pupils is to take, 
as, from New York to Albany, or to Washington, or to Chicago, etc. 
Have a number of railroad maps for reference. Write the following 
topics on the board : 

Time table and its use 

Ticket and its cost at about two cents a mile 

Station in New York and how to get there 

Train and how to reach it 

Baggage and how to express it 

Let the pupils tell what it is necessary to do. Question as 
follows : 

What information will you seek at first ? 

Where will you go for it? 

How will you get there? 

Suppose you can't find the place, whom will you ask? 

If you don't know your train, whom will you ask? 

What sights will you look for? 

Have the pupils calculate the speed of the train from the dis- 
tance between the places and the time according to the time table. 
Lead thorn to deal with the whole matter as a situation in real life. 



GEOGRAPHY 



279 



Show how cities and other places are located on the map. 
troduce the subject somewhat as follows: 



In- 



What are the leading avenues in the city? 

If I say you live on Third Avenue. Can you be found ? 

What else is needed to place you? 

How else can you be located, if there is no number ? 

Suppose a man lives on the corner, how is address given ? 

Proceed to draw lines on the board like the following, and tell 
the pupils you are going to lay out a main avenue and a crosstown 
line: 









■ 




l* 1 

! 


- 
























t\ 








£ 










A , 


TT- 


















11 ' 
























E 














^™ 


*■ 




^» 








,E 


























.P 

















































s 



Call upon pupils to tell how far north some of the letters are. 
Show that two different places are both the same distance north, but 
that one is east and the other west. Let them tell how far east the 
one is, and how far west the other is. Let them locate each place 
fully. Carry on the lesson as follows: 

How far north is A? B? C? 

How far east is A ? 

Locate A. Locate these places as I name them. 



280 SPECIAL METHODS 

After the pupils can locate different places, read locations and 
have the pupils name the places. Have the pupils open their 
geographies at the map of South America. Call upon them to name 
place on or near 10° south, 20° south, 10° north, etc. Explain what 
the figures at the top mean. Let the pupils locate places more 
accurately. Ask them then to locate New York, Albany, "Washing- 
ton, and some other important cities. Use the term 'degrees' as you 
explain. Do not attempt to explain the expression further than to 
tell that a degree measures distance on the earth, and is marked off 
on the different circles. Introduce the terms ' N Latitude, ' ' S Lati- 
tude, ' ' E Longitude, ' and ' W Longitude, ' as you read off cities and 
their locations. Connect in usage the terms 'East and West' with 
'Longitude,' and 'North and South' with 'Latitude.' 

7. Other countries. Seventh and eighth years. Present the 
cities of Europe, South America, and of the other continents in the 
same manner as in the case of the United States. Make an intensive 
study of some of the more important cities, as, London, Berlin, or 
Paris. Sketch an outline of the city on the board showing its con- 
nections with other cities and countries. Tell about the industries, 
the commerce, the people, the government, interesting places, popu- 
lation, etc. Have the pupils study the map visually. Make a list of 
the largest cities and let the pupils study the list visually, and also 
name and place the cities on a blank map. Introduce the series of 
causes which account for the cities'* greatness. Question somewhat 
as follows: 

Suppose the harbor became clogged np, what would happen 
to the foreign commerce? 

Why does not a more inland city get as much commerce ? 

What enters into the cost of a commodity? 

If the city were near the North Pole, how would the com- 
merce be affected ? 

How does the production of coal and iron help commerce? 

What part of the country yields coal and iron ? 

Let the pupils compare different cities with reference to their 
nearness to the sea, their climate, their altitude, the resources of the 
country, and so on. Take such cities as New York and Yonkers. 
New York and the City of Mexico, London and Derby, the harbors 



GEOGRAPHY 281 

of England and those of Russia. Ask the pupils what are the con- 
ditions needed for the development of a large city. Write down the 
causal series as follows: 

Location, nearness to sea or to natural resources 
Climate, not too hot or too cold 
Surface, harbor, water supply, etc. 
Resources and industries 

Have the pupils study each of the most important cities under 
these heads. 

III. Surface 

1. Local features. Third and fourth years. Call the attention 
of the children to one or two important aspects of the earth's sur- 
face. Question the class as follows : 

What are the streets paved with? 

Where do the stones come from? 

Were the streets always as they are now? 

Tell how they were long ago. 

Where can we find such land now? 

What different things do we find in the country? 

Show pictures of well-known streets and also streets of other 
cities and other countries. Call attention to the general division 
into squares or blocks, and roadways and dwellings or business 
places. Show pictures of different parts of the earth's surface, as, 
forest regions, plains, desert surfaces, mountainous tracts, etc. Tell 
of what use each is, why it can or can not be inhabited, why it can 
not be thickly populated, etc. Give some account of the native trees 
and animals. Show pictures, specimens, etc. Tell of animals and 
plants of other lands. 

In bringing out the idea of the slope of the land, proceed some- 
what as follows : 

Where does the water go when it rains? 

Where does it go after it hits the sidewalk? 

Why does it flow towards the sewer ? 

Where does it then go ? How ? Why ? 

In the park where does some of the water go ? 

In the country how does the water reach the sea ? 

Where does some of it go? 

Illustrate what the discussion has brought out by the following 
drawing : 



282 



SPECIAL METHODS 



/ / s 




Follow up the progress of the passage of the water to the sea. 
Show how some of the water remains in pools, helps to form lakes, 
is sucked up by the earth, forms underground streams, and so on. 
Let the pupils point to the name and local rivers, channels, creeks, 
lakes, and bays. 

2. The home town or city. Fourth year. Let the pupils com- 
pare the height of one part of the city with another. Question them 
as follows : 

How high is this street above the sea level? 

How high is the Battery? Harlem? 

What is the highest part of Manhattan Island? 

What is the highest part of Brooklyn? Bronx? Etc. 

Draw the following map to illustrate the surface of Manhattan : 



A 



o 

r4 






^^2222222222 




£ 



S t A LEVEL 

Draw similar maps for the other Boroughs. Tell the pupils the 
length of the Borough, its breadth at different parts, and its area. 
Show different kinds of soil, of rock, etc., peculiar tq the Boroughs. 
Give some account of the original surface of the land, how parts 
were leveled, swamps filled in, and so on. Point out what parts are 
good for habitation and why. 



GEOGRAPHY 



283 



To show the different bodies of water draw a map like the 
folloAving : 




Question the pupils as follows : 

Which way does the Hudson flow? 

Where does it get its water from? 

Why is not the East River really a river? 

Why are there tides in the East River? 

Where is Hell Gate? 

Does the tide from the Ocean from Sandy Hook strike it 

at the same time as the tide by way of Long Island 

Sound ? 
Tell what happens. 

Direct the pupils in a visual study of the map, thus : 

Read the names of the waters from the Hudson to the 

Ocean. 
From the Sound to the Ocean. 

Look at the west side of the city. Look at each name. 
Close eyes. Try to repeat the names. 
Open eyes. Look again at the Upper Bay. South of it. 
Who can tell the class what waters are on the Avest shores 9 



284 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Rub the names off the board. Let the pupils point to the bodies 
of water and name them. Name a body of water and let the pupils 
locate it. Let the pupils study the map, Borough by Borough, and 
proceed in the manner indicated. 

3. The world. Fourth and fifth years. Proceed in much the 
same manner with the study of the continents. Draw a map on the 
board, thus: 




wuim 



ItmiZ 



I 



Question the class: 

"Why do the principal rivers flow towards the Atlantic 

Ocean ? 
Why does the Uruguay River flow south, and the Tocantins 

north? 
Why can thick forests grow south of the Amazon River * 
In what general direction do the Andes Mountains run .' 



GEOGRAPHY 



285 



If possible illustrate the surface with a large relief map made of 
clay or paper pulp. Show pictures of the vegetation, tell of the 
different kinds of woods, of coffee, rubber, etc., and of the animals 
peculiar to the continent. Then let the pupils study the map in a 
formal manner as indicated in the preceding paragraph. Ask them 
to name and locate the highlands, mountain ranges, and three or 
four principal rivers. Treat the coast line and the surrounding 
bodies of water in the same way. 

4. The United States and other countries. Fifth and sixth 
years. Show the leading areas of production on a map like the 
following : 




286 



SPECIAL METHODS 



" Question the class : 

Why can so much wheat and corn be raised in the Missis- 
sippi Valley ? 

Where does the Mississippi get its water from ? 

Why is there not such a supply in the region west of the 
Rockies ? 

Prom which direction do the winds come that carry water 
over the Mississippi Valley 1 ? 

How are the Great Lakes filled with water ? 

Explain the formation of Niagara Palls. 

Show pictures of plants and animals common in the United States. 
Try to get specimens of the different kinds of wood, cereals, etc. 
Let the pupils discuss possible conditions with the Rockies on 
the eastern coast and the Appalachians on the west. Have the 
pupils study the map in a formal manner as suggested above. Let 
them study highlands, lowlands, mountains and river systems 
together. Then have them study coast line, surrounding bodies of 
water,, peninsulas, and islands. 

In passing to a detailed study of the United States, begin with 
the home state. Draw a map on the board, and treat as above. 
Write the names to be studied next to the map as indicated in the 
following : 




P.D. M"T$. 



CftT. MTS 



»*»T)soy/,R ( 



GEOGRAPHY 287 

Deal with foreign countries in much the same manner, thus : 







After questioning, discussion, illustration by means of pictures, 
specimens, story, etc., direct the pupils in the formal study of 
the map. 

5. Other countries. Seventh and eighth years. Present the sur- 
face of individual countries in the same manner as that suggested 
above. Let the pupils compare the surface of the United States with 
that of other countries according to : 

Length, breadth, area 

Highlands, direction of, and general effects of 
Lowlands, valleys, nature and fertility of 
Rivers, use of, for commerce and irrigation 
Coast line and harbors 

Hang a map before the pupils and let them compare the coun- 
tries, point by point. Draw the two cross sections on. the board to 
aid in the comparison. 



288 



SPECIAL METHODS 



IV. Climate and Time 

1. The weather, day and night, and the seasons. Third and 
fourth years. Present these features in a descriptive way without 
attempts at analysis and explanation. Have the days of the month 
marked off on a chart or in a corner of the hoard. Over the name 
of the month write the name of the season. Each day write down 
whether the day was cold, cool, warm, or hot, and also if it was fair, 
cloudy or rainy. The calendar will look something like this : 




Some time during the month go over the different kinds of weather 
recorded. Ask the pupils questions as follows : 

How many rainy days have we had? 

How many fair days? Cloudy? 

How was the wind blowing on the rainy days ? 

In which direction were the clouds moving ? 

Where did they get the water ? 



Let the pupils pass judgment on the general kind of weather during 
the month. Keep a record, e. g., 'Fair and cool, 5 rainy days. 
October, 1912, ' and use it for comparison with other months. 



GEOGRAPHY 



289 



Teach the seasons as they are popularly known, i. e., as times 
of the year in which changes in the weather take . place, and during 
which plants and animals undergo a change. Question the pupils 
somewhat as follows : 

When will we have snow? 
What happens to the trees in the winter? 
Where do some of the northern birds go? 
How is winter different from summer? 
What plants grow in the summer ? 

Let the pupils name the summer months, the winter months, etc. 
Write them on the board in the following manner : 



Spring 

March 

April 

May 



Summer 

June 
July 

August 



Fall 



Winter 



September 

October 

November 



December 

January 

February 



Tell the pupils about the festivals, holidays, etc., in this country 
and in other lands. Let them read about the customs of people as 
determined by the seasons. Show pictures and tell about the 
pleasures, occupations, etc., common during the seasons, as, ice skat- 
ing, tobogganing, swimming, etc, sowing, reaping, harvesting, hold- 
ing fairs, etc. 

Show the difference between day and night by the well-known 
device of candle and globe. Rotate the globe slowly. Draw the 
resulting light and shadow on the board: 




290 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Question as follows: 

Suppose this white spot is the school. 

As I turn, raise hands when it is time to go home. 

Where shall we be to-night ? 

Now it is night. Where shall we be to-morrow? 

How many times does the globe turn in one day ? 

How many times does it turn in a week? In a month? 

Darken the room before you begin to illustrate. Make sure to 
use a real globe and a real light. Do not be satisfied with only the 
blackboard illustration. 

2. Climate, zones and circles. Fourth and fifth years. Keep a 
record of the weather by means of a chart like the following : 

















M 


i\ 7 


o 




i 


i~ 


3 


* 


5" 


r 


i 


a 


10 


















CO 


































So 





















Indicate rainy days by means of a red circle. Point out that the 
range of the weather during the different months usually remains 
between two levels. Question the pupils as follows : 

Where shall we find it fifty degrees below zero? 
Where is it almost always hot? 
Suppose we keep going north? South? 
Suppose we keep on going south ? 



Read stories as told by explorers of extreme heat or cold. Show 
pictures of life in torrid regions and in cold regions. Give accounts, 
of the trees and animals in the different lands and illustrate them 
by means of pictures. Let the pupils read about the topics suggested. 



GEOGRAPHY 
Draw the following on the board : 



291 




Hage a magnifying glass and show how the rays of the sun focus 
at a small spot. Let some of the pupils put their hands under 
the focus. Question as follows : 

What difference is there between the heat all over the top 

and that at the focus? 
Why is the focus hotter than a spot of the same size at 

the top ? 
Take this distance near the Equator. Compare it with the 

same distance further up north. Which is hotter ? Why ? 
How does the heat at the Equator work on the air and 

water there? 

Mark off the zones as follows : 



yutv*> 

*-<«i<S.ydJ>t 




292 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Write the names on the board. Have the pupils tell the mean- 
ing of 'frigid,' 'torrid,' and 'temperate.' Let the pupils read about 
the life in the zones, and tell interesting accounts about the different 
forms of life there. 

Take up the climate of the United States. Indicate the climate 
of the different regions by means of th f j following map : 



\ 




Question and point to the map as you question 



Why can we grow cotton here and not here ? 

Why can we grow cotton here and not here? 

Why is there no frost in Florida? Why in New York? 

Why do the storms in winter move out towards the 

Atlantic ? 
Why do the winds in summer carry rain over the Eastern 

coast ? 



GEOGRAPHY 293 

Compare the regious in the East with the dry regions in the 
interior. Bring out the difference between the climate along the 
Atlantic coast and that along the Pacific. Show the effects of the 
rainfall and the temperature on the different forms of vegatation. 

Show the difference between the pressure of the air in the room 
and that outside. Open the window and hold a streamer in the open 
space. Question as follows : 

Why does the streamer blow in? 
Why does the air outside push it in? 

Open the window at the top and see how the streamer behaves. 
Open the door slightly and repeat the test. Make the following 
drawing on the board : 



Question the pupils : 

How is the wind blowing to-day ? 

How does it blow on the beaches? 

Why does it blow from the sea in summer? 

Why does it blow from the land in winter ? 

For a number of days let the pupils note the direction of the 
wind, and mark it on the board. Use it as material for further 
explanation and discussion. 

On rainy days have the pupils note which way the clouds are 
moving. Write down several instances on the board and question 
as follows : 

Where did the clouds come from? 
Where did they get their water ? 
How did the water get to the clouds? 



294 SPECIAL METHODS 

Did the sun really 'pull' any water up? 

If you heat or boil water, does the fire 'pull' the water up? 

What really happens to the water? 

Make a diagram like the following on the board : 




Write on the board the different stages, thus : 



IVater Heat Vapor Clouds 




Let the pupils study visually both the diagram and the outline of 
stages. 

After lessons similar to the preceding have been given let the 
pupils study zones and circles in a formal manner. Draw the fol- 
lowing on the board : 



GEOGRAPHY 295 




Point to the map and question : 

What zone north of the Equator ? South of it ? 
What zone south of the Tropic of Capricorn ? 
Why is it so cold in this zone ? 
How do the sun's rays stride here? 

Direct the pupils in a visual study, thus : 

Read the names of the circles as I point. 

Read them from the north down. From the south up. 

Read from the Equator up. Read from the Equator south. 

Close eyes. Try to name the circles from the north down- 
Rub the names out of the map. Ask the pupils to name as you point,, 
and to point to the map as you name the zones and circles. 

3. Climate, seasons, longitude and time. Sixth through eighth 
years. Take up the study of the climate of other countries in a 
manner similar to that given above for the United States. In addi- 
tion write the following topics on the board : 

Location near the sea \ 

Location above the level of the sea ) -^quaTor 

Winds, storms, etc. 

Rainfall, winter and summer 

Temperature, winter and summer 



296 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Ask the pupils to tell about the climate of the home city, and of 
other cities, under these heads. Deal with countries in the same 
manner. Indicate average temperatures of the same degree which 
exist in different parts of the country and draw isotherms for the 
different degrees, as, 70°, 60°, etc. Compare the winds of the city 
or country under discussion with other winds, as, monsoons, sand 
storms, trade winds, etc. Show how the Gulf Stream is formed and 
how it affects the climate of western Europe. Have a map of the 
country in question on the board during the discussion, similar to 
the following: 




TEMP, FOR TaN^RJ 



To illustrate the cause of the seasons, darken the room and place 
a strong light in the center. Use an electric bulb or a strong lantern. 
Hold the globe with the axis properly tipped. Show the pupils how 
the earth is lighted in front of the room. Sketch the result on the 
board. Pass to one side of the room and repeat the process. Go 
slowly around the room, or let a pupil do this. Illustrate the com- 
plete revolution by a drawing like the following : 



GEOGRAPHY 



297 




Repeat the illustration of the revolution of the earth, and spend 
some time in showing why 'the long night' exists at the polar 
regions. Emphasise the fact that not only the revolution of the 
earth, but also the tipping of its axis causes the seasons. 

Contrast the time at the present with the time in other coun- 
tries. Direct and question as follows: 

This morning, now, what are the boys in England doing? 

What are they doing in San Francisco? 

Why are the schools in England closing for the day, now? 

Illustrate the difference in time as follows : 




298 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Question somewhat as follows : 

It is noon at A. What time is it at B, C ? 

At what places is it night time when it is noon at A? 

Where will A have moved at 1 o'clock? At 2 o'clock? 

How can we tell exactly? 

Over how many degrees does the earth turn in one day ? 

Give the longitudes of cities like New York, London, Chicago, 
San Francisco, etc. Let the pupils reckon the difference in longitude 
between New York and some other city. Have them find the differ- 
ence in time. Assign times, and let the pupils give the time in the 
other city, thus : 

New York, 75° W Chicago, 90° W San Francisco, 120° W 

London, 0° Berlin, 15° E 

Give the difference in longitude between New York and 

each other city. 
Give the difference in time between New York and each 

other city. 
When it is noon in New York, what time is it in the other 

cities ? 
When it is 9 A. M., 3 P. M., 9 P. M., etc., in New York, 

what time is it in the other cities? 

If necessary aim them by drawing the following diagram on the 
board : 




V. Maps and Graphs 

1. The map. Third and fourth years. Show the use of the map 
as a means of finding places. When the new class enters introduce 
to them the room, halls, stairways, etc., by a diagram like the 
following : 



GEOGRAPHY 



299 




Direct and question as follows : 

Now this is our room. 

Suppose you stand at the door and face the hall. 

In what direction is stairway A ? 

"Which way will you go to reach exit B ? 

Suppose you stand at stairway A and face the hall. 

How will you reach our room ? 

Draw a diagram of the yards, and indicate where the class is to 
stand. Draw a map of the neighborhood, thus: 




300 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Question the pupils : 

Who can point out where the candy store is? 

Where is the grocer 's ? The baker 's ? 

Where shall we have to go to get to the Park? 

Show the correspondence between the map and a locality by 
the following drawing : 




Draw the locality first and then let the pupils direct you, step by 
step, how to map out the different parts. 

2. Formal study of the map. After story, illustration, discus- 
sion, etc., lead the pupils in a visual study of the map. Tf possible, 
group what is to be studied as follows : 

(a) Products, occupations, industries 

(b) Cities along the coast, along railroad routes, capitals 

(c) Highlands, mountains, lowlands, plains, rivers, lakes 



GEOGRAPHY 



301 



(d) Coast line, bays, gulfs, peninsulas, islands 

(e) Boundaries, names of states and countries 



Direct the study in the following manner : 

Look at the map. 

Read all the names, from the north, south, from the east, 

west, and back. 
Read as I point. (Point in one direction, and include from 

3 to 5 names). 
Look at them. Look again. Close eyes. Repeat the names. 
Open eyes. Look again. Repeat the names to yourselves. 

Restrict the study to a few related topics as indicated in the 
preceding directions. Draw a clear, outline map on the board, with 
only the topics to be studied upon it. Associate the visual impres- 
sion with whispered repetitions or only tongue movements. Test 
the results of the study by calling upon a few of the poorer pupils 
to recite dn front of the class or to point out the name with a 
blank map. 

3. The graph. In illustrating comparison of different amounts, 
use a graph like the following : 





< 


\ i 


> 

S 4 






* < 
i e 


> < 

» t 

> r 


> © o 


WOft|_D 
U.S. 

F*. 












































91 




































































..... 











CO/IL - MILLION LO«V<,T»*S 



302 SPECIAL METHODS 

Represent areas as follows : 



^.S. 3 ooo o°o - 



EWC». 



5T> OO D . 



£*fr 



tf.1 



If possible have charts made of the more important graphs. 

VI. Use of the Text-Book 

1. Reading". Third and fourth years. Conduct the lesson in 
much the same manner as a regular reading lesson is conducted. 
Write on the board such words and expressions as give the key to 
the subject matter. Thus, in a lesson on the industries of the United 
States, select such words from the book as: 



Appalachian 
Mississippi 
Sierra Nevada 



manufacturing 

agriculture 

industries 



laborers 

articles 

transportation 



Go over such words with the class before letting them read. Let 
the pupils read either silently or aloud. After a pupil has read, ask 
the class to tell what he has read. Call upon individual pupils, and 
direct them, if necessary, by questions. 

2. Topical study. Fifth through eighth years. Let the pupils 
read as above directed. After a pupil has read call upon the others 
to put what he has read into a single sentence. Have the pupils 
read a paragraph silently. Ask them to give the topic sentence for 
the paragraph. Write a series of consecutive topics sentences on 
the board and call upon the pupils to tell about what each topic 
suggests. 



GEOGRAPHY 303 

Assign definite topics for silent reading. Let such reading be 
done either in the classroom or at home. Write the topic on the 
board, indicate the reading matter, and give the page and the para- 
graph. Let the text-book reenforee the class instruction. Directions 
such as follows are models : 

(a) Wheat, corn, cotton 
Read pages — , — , — , — . 

(b) Look for 'Wheat' in the index and the table of contents. 
Read about the coimtries which produce the most wheat. 
Find out what countries export wheat, and where it goes. 

(c) See tables on pages — , — , — , — . 
Look up maps on pages — , — , — . 
Read pages — , — , — . 

(d) On page — , give the latitude and the longitude of the 

wheat producing areas. Name the states covered by 
this area. What state produces the greatest amount? 

(e) Locate 10 harbors on the coast of map — , page — . Read 

up what each city produces, how large it is, and facts 
of interest connected with it. 

(f ) On map — , page — , find four large rivers which flow into 

the Atlantic Ocean. Find the mountain or highland 
which gives rise to the river. Name the plain which it 
waters. What countries or states does each river water. 

Hold the pupils strictly to the information asked. Use both 
geographies and supplementary readers in this manner. 

VII. General Suggestions 

From time to time, get pictures which deal with the topics of 
instruction. Whenever you see something relevant in paper or 
magazine, cut it out. Use old geographies for this purpose. Mount 
the pictures on cardboard about 5x8 or 7x11 inches. Have the 
pictures arranged under headings like the topics in your term plan. 
Before you give the lesson have the pictures either hanging up in 
front of the room, or ready for distribution among the children. 
Direct the pupils what to look for in each of the pictures. Pictures 
of larger size may be framed or mounted and added to the perma- 
nent classroom decoration. If possible, reenforee this with a collec- 
tion of different specimens, as, woods, products, cereals, fibres, etc. 



304 SPECIAL METHODS 

As a general rule, never give a lesson without using a map or a 
graph. Draw an outline on the map and fill in only what is to be 
presented in the lessons. Artistic ability is not required. If not 
proficient, then practice the drawing to be put on the board. Sketch 
the map on the board with light strokes, and finish with a firm, 
heavy line. Use blue crayon for the seas, green for the plains, brown 
or purple for the highlands, and red, yellow, or orange for outlines. 
Write figures and letters in white. In the classroom have one or 
more wall maps, a large globe, a paper pulp map, and charts. Make 
the relief map in paper pulp yourself, as suggested in the first 
chapter. Make the charts either on large cardboard or on white 
shades. 



CHAPTEK XII 

HISTORY AND CIVICS — VISUAL 

1. Holidays 
In classes of the first three or four years prepare, several days 
in advance, for such holidays, as, "Washington's Birthday, Thanks- 
giving, Columbus Day, and holidays of more local character. For 
Washington's Birthday, hang up pictures of Washington, his home 
at Mt. Vernon, the Washington Monument, and scenes in which he 
figures, as, crossing the Delaware, inauguration, etc. If there is a 
calendar on the board, make the date prominent by marking it in 
red, putting a wreath around it, etc. Tell stories about his boyhood, 
his plantation life, his school life, incidents connected with him, mode 
of life at the time, and so on. In the higher grades, show similar 
pictures, and mount illustrations and reading matter from current 
periodicals. Let the pupils read about Washington. Write a sum- 
mary on the board as follows : 

George Washington 

Born Feb. 22, 1732, died Dec. 14, 1799 

Surveyor for Lord Fairfax, 1748 

With Braddock in the French and Indian War, 1755 

Takes command of the American Army at Cambridge, 1776 

Leader in the Revolutionary War, 1775 — 1783 

First President of the United States, 1789—1797 

Tell interesting stories about Washington at different stages of his 
career and let the pupils read interesting accounts. 

In connection with Thanksgiving Day, in the lower grades, make 
a drawing of a big turkey on the board, and hang up real or paper 
pumpkins, with eyes, nose and mouth cut out. Show pictures of the 
voyage of the Mayflower, the landing of the Pilgrims, Pilgrims going 
to church, planting, etc. Tell stories about the life of the Pilgrims, 
their friendship with the Indians, their first Thanksgiving Feast, and 
so on. In the higher grades show pictures of the lives of the Pil- 
grims, their struggles in the New World, colonial life, etc. Write an 
outline on the board as follows : 

305 



306 SPECIAL METHODS 

Thanksgiving Day 

First Thanksgiving Day at Plymouth, 1621, after the first 

harvest 
Massachusetts Bay Colony first set aside a day in 1630 
Washington appointed a day. Thursday, November 26, 1789 
Lincoln appointed the fourth Thursday of November, 1864 

Do not ask the pupils to memorise the outline or to study it for- 
mally. Leave it on the board to give the pupils some idea of what 
the holiday is about. Give accounts of the life of the Pilgrims in 
England and America, of their struggles and successes in the New- 
World, etc. Treat other important days in the manner outlined. 

II. Discoveries and Explorations 

1. Fourth and fifth years. Center lessons on the discoverers 
and explorers on the following four: (1) Columbus, (2) Cabot, (3) 
Verrazzani, and (4) Hudson, as representatives of (1) Spain, (2) 
England, (3) Prance, and (4) Holland. Take up each of the four 
somewhat fully, in the order named. Then present more briefly the 
other explorers under the countries named. Deal AA-ith the topics by 
means of the following: (1) illustrations with pictures, blackboard 
sketches, etc., (2) stories of the explorer, his voyage, progress in the 
New World, etc., and (3) reading by the pupils. 

In the case of Columbus, show pictures of Columbus, of his 
appeal before the Court of Isabella, of his voyage, landing, return 
home, etc. Tell interesting stories about his beliefs, his travels to get 
aid, his success, voyage, etc. Draw a map on the board and indicate 
his voyage as follows : 




HISTORY 



307 



Give some account of the Indians, how they lived, how they com- 
pared with Columbus and his men in dress, weapons, manner of liv- 
ing, etc. In the same way present Cabot, Verrazzani, and Hudson. 

Give lessons on the other explorers in the following groups : 



Spain 



England 



Columbus, 1492 
De Leon, 1513 
Balboa, 1513 
Magellan, 1520 
De Soto, 1541 



Cabot, 1497-98 
Drake, 1577 
Raleigh, 1585 



France 



Holland 



Verrazzani, 1524 
Cartier, 1535 
Champlain, 1608 
Marquette, 1673 
Joliet, 1673 



Hudson, 1609 



After illustrations, story, map study, and reading, let the pupils 
study a group of explorers visually, thus : 



£ 


Spanish 






Columbus, 


1492 




De Leon, 


1513 




Balboa, 


1513 




Magellan, 


1520 




De Soto, 


1541 



Read the names and dates softly. 

Who can tell what Columbus did ? 

Where was he born? For what country did he sail? 

Look at the first three names. Look again. 

Repeat them softly. Close eyes. Now repeat them. 

Open eyes. Look again. Read the whole five. 

Repeat the names and dates softly. Close eyes. 



Call upon several pupils to repeat names and dates before the 
class. Let the class look at the board and be ready to correct. Call 
upon pupils to tell about the voyage of each man. Let them point 
to the map, trace the voyage, and tell about it. 



308 



SPECIAL METHODS 



2. Fifth and sixth years. Present the explorers in the manner 
indicated above. In addition show by the following map what each 
of the countries claimed because of the discoveries and explorations : 




Question somewhat as follows : 

Why did France have a better claim to the Mississippi 

Valley than England? 
Who explored the Mississippi for France? 
What did they try there ? Why ? When ? 
Name the French explorers in order. 

Have the pupils formally study the explorers in groups, as above. 

3. Seventh and eighth years. Show the pupils what condi- 
tions, existing in Europe, led to the discoveries. Take up briefly the 
conflict between the Mohammedans and Western Europe. Draw a 
map on the board as follows : 




ME-PITERRA^E 



HISTORY 



309 



Question the pupils as follows : 

What lands did the Crusaders reach? 

What are some of the products of these lands'? 

What did the Crusaders bring back with them? 

How could supplies reach the Crusaders in the East? 

Name some other routes. Point them out. 

What great cities traded on the coast? 

Show the relations which existed between the lords and the men 
under them. As a type, illustrate village life in England under the 
Feudal System, thus: 




*1 '^"■ *' 7 'g*W r * STftlPi 




Question as follows: 

To whom does the tenant pay rent now? 
Describe a village in England or America to-day. 
To whom do the people owe allegiance to-day ? Why ? 
Who make the laws ? How ? 

Show the relations of the villeins and cottars to the lord of the 
manor. Impress the fact that, throughout Europe, similar relations 
existed between the people and the lords or robber barons. 



310 SPECIAL METHODS 

Illustrate the trades routes between the East and the West by 
the following map : 




Question as follows: 

Why did Venice and Genoa become so important? 

How did the goods reach them ? 

How was this commerce interfered with ? 

When Constantinople fell in 1453, what routes were closed? 

Show how Genoa and Venice sent goods up north through France 
and Germany where Fairs were held to sell them. Point out 
the interference and robbery by the robber barons of caravans sent 
up north. Trace the growth of the Hanseatic League, thus : 

What other way can goods reach north Germany from 

Genoa ? 
Name some ports in Germany. 

Why should Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck wish to form 
a League? 

Show that the League was developing a caravan route through 
Russia and China. Bring out the necessity of finding a shorter route 
to India, because of the expense and the danger of the overland route 
and the route by way of Africa. In connection with the develop- 
ment and the growth of cities, give some account of the craft gilds, 
the decay of Feudalism, and note the more important inventions, as, 
gnn powder and printing. 



HISTORY 
II. Colonisation 



311 



1. The English, (a) Fifth and sixth years. Present in detail 
the colonisation of (1) Virginia, (2) Massachusetts and (3) Penn- 
sylvania, as centers for the (1) Southern, (2) Northern, and (3) 
Middle English colonies. Draw a map on the board and show where 
the settlements began, thus : 




Question the pupils as follows : 

"What discoverer gave England claim to the land? 
Point to the colder regions. To the 'rock-bound coast.' 
"Where is there good fishing ? Good land for tobacco ? 
Where can corn be raised ? Wheat ? 
How did the Indians live? How did they travel? 

Mark off the grant. of the London Company. Tell the pupils 
interesting stories of the early settlement at Jamestown of the work 



312 



SPECIAL METHODS 



of John Smith, and of the character of the settlers. Sketch on the 
board the general features of Jamestown, thus: 






'^kM&e--^-.'^ 




Question the pupils and point to the map as you question : 

What men are needed to build this'? And this? 
"What must men do before plants will grow? 
What plant did the colonists raise most? 

Show pictures and let the pupils read about the topics presented. 

Present one or more important events in the history of the 
colony, like Bacon's Rebellion. Draw a map on the board, thus : 




Question the pupils as follows: 

Which way would the town grow .' Point to the map. 
Where would the merchants and traders live? 



HISTORY 



313 



In which direction would the plantations spread ? 
Who would come into contact with the Indians? 
Why were not the merchants on the coast anxious to go 
against the Indians? 

Show the pupils that Governor Berkeley and the merchant class, 
more interested in trading with the Indians than in the back country 
plantations, would hesitate in sending troops against the Indians. 
Let the pupils read paragraphs in their histories, on the topics 
presented. 



Illustrate the government of Virginia by means of the following 
diagram : 

bMMMHMMl 

COUNCIL HASSEtAfrUf 

m iii u Mi n i w i ml l»— m"' ' i* i » » i m i imiWiM* 

Question and direct the pupils as follows : 

When the governor is appointed by the king, what is the 

government called? 
Who would then appoint the council? 
If a proprietor appointed the governors? 
Under a charter how would the governor be appointed ? 
What body was always elected by the people ? 

Compare the form of colonial government with other forms, 
thus: 

What bodies govern in this city ? 
Which one takes the place of the assembly ? 
How is the state governed ? The country ? 
Who elects the governor? The president! 

Outline the forms of government as follows : 
Colonial Government 



Body 



Name 



Royal 



Executive Governor 

T . , , . ( Council 

.Legislative < . 

( Assembly 



King 
King 
People 



Proprietary 



Proprietor 
Proprietor 
People 



Charter 



People 
People 
People 



314 SPECIAL METHODS 

Tell the pupils about the first representative assembly at James- 
town, in 1619, and how it was constituted, two representatives from 
each of eleven boroughs, to be called the House of Burgesses. 

After lessons similar to the above have been given, let the pupils 
study an outline of the important facts. Write the outline on the 
board, thus: 

Virginia 



London Company, Jamestown, 1607 
First representative assembly, 1619 
Slavery introduced, 1619 

People 

I Smith, Dale, Berkeley, Bacon (1676) 

I Traders, planters, workmen, indented servants, negroes 

Products 

| Tobacco, corn, potatoes 
Government, finally royal 

Question the pupils as follows : 

Why did the first settlements fail ? 

What kind of people were needed? Why? 

What men succeeded in establishing the settlement? 

What were 'indented servants?' 

Let the class study the outline visually, thus: 

Read over the first three lines. Repeat them softly. 
Look again. Look at the dates. Repeat them softly. 
Close eyes. Try to repeat the lines. Look at the board. 

Ask some of the pupils to stand before the class and give a brief 
account of the events as outlined on the board. Name the event 
and call upon pupils to give the date. Give the date and have pupils 
name the event. Pass the questions rapidly round the class. 

Present the other southern colonies more briefly. Draw a map 
on the board as follows : 



HISTORY 



315 




How does the land of Carolina compare with that of Vir- 
ginia ? 
"Why would some of the Virginians go further south ? 
What else was raised there besides corn and tobacco ? 

Let the pupils read about the colonies. Write an outline on the 
board as follows : 

Southern Colonies 



Virginia 


Jamestown 


1607 


Charter, Royal 


The Carolinas 


Charleston 


1670 


Proprietary, Royal 


Georgia 


Savannah 


1733 


Proprietary, Royal 


Maryland 


St. Marys 


1634 


Proprietary, Royal 



Have the pupils point out how the colonies differed, thus : 

What products were raised in the Carolinas? 

What was the difference between the settlers in Georgia 

and those of Virginia ? 
What was a ' poor debtor 1 '. 



Let them study the outline visually as directed above. 

Take up the study of Massachusetts in detail as in the case of 
Virginia. Tell about the Plymouth Company. Show the grant of 
land by a map on the board, thus : 



316 



SPECIAL METHODS 




Tell about the Puritans, their trials in England and Holland, 
and their voyage in the Mayflower. Trace their voyage on the map. 
Question the class as follows : 

How does the climate compare with that of Virginia? 

What kind of land is there along the coast? 

"What plants could be raised ? 

How did the settlers compare with those of the south ? 

Contrast the widely spread plantations of the south with the 
closely knit villages of New England. Compare the activities of the 
two sections, trading, fishing, and manufacturing, with tobacco rais- 
ing. Tell interesting stories about the life of the people, their 
occupations, troubles with the Indians, etc. Let the pupils read 
about the topics presented. 

Give a more formal lesson on the colony. Write the following 
outline on the board : 



Massachusetts 



Landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, 1620 
Massachusetts Bay Colonw 1630 
Harvard College, 1638 

People , 

| Bradford, Standish, Wintlirop 
| Gentlemen, merchants, mechanics 



HISTORY 317 

Products 

Ships, lumber, pitch, tar, henip 
Rurn, fish 

Government, Charter 

Governor and eighteen assistants 
General Court, or annual assembly 

Question the pupils, thus: 

Why did the Puritans leave England? 

Why did the settlers develop ship building and trading ? 

Where did they sell the fish ? The lumber ? 

Have the pupils amplify the topics on the board. Let them study 
the outline visually as in the case of Virginia. 

Deal very briefly with the other New England colonies. Tell 
stories about Roger Williams, Anne Hutchinson, and the religious 
dissensions in Massachusetts. Let the pupils read up the topics in 
their histories. Indicate how the other settlements spread from 
Massachusetts as follows: 



- Providence, 1636 
Rhode Island, 1637 
Massachusetts ) ^H__ — Connecticut, 1633 

New Haven, 1638 
New Hampshire, 1620 



) 



Give a short account of Maine. Do not ask the pupils to make 
a formal study of the outline. Use it simply as a guide for their 
reading. 

The history of Pennsylvania centers on the life of William Penn 
and the Quakers. Tell stories about them, give accounts of their 
friendly relations with the Indians, and let the pupils read about 
them. Draw a map on the board to locate the early settlements and 
the surrounding colonies. Point out the difference between the 
Quakers and the settlers on either side of them. After Pennsylvania, 
give one or two lessons on the conquests of the English in 1664. Let 
the pupils tell why the Swedes and the Dutch did not have so good 
an opportunity to stay and spread, why the English had a better 



318 SPECIAL METHODS 

grasp along the Atlantic coast, and how their method of settling 
helped them. After reading and discussion by the pupils, write the 
following on the board : 

New York, (1609) ) 

New Jersey, 1664 [ 1661 

Delaware, (1623) ) 
Pennsylvania, 1681 

Call upon the pupils to give a brief account of each of the colonies. 
Then let them study the list formally. 

(&) Seventh and eighth years. Present colonisation by the 
English in the manner suggested above, but more briefly, by groups 
and topical outlines. In addition take up (1) the industrial condi- 
tions in England, (2) the religious intolerance and persecution, and 
(3) the wars on the Continent. Draw a village on the board and 
map out the houses, manor, and fields. Question the pupils, thus: 

Suppose there are about 200 people engaged in farming. 
What would happen if all the land was turned over to sheep 

raising ? 
How many men are needed to raise a large flock of sheep 1 
What would the. rest of the men do ? 
Suppose other farms were turned over to sheep raising ? 
Why should the lords want to raise sheep ? 

Emphasise the change by the following questions : 

Suppose this class room formed part of the village, and the 

floor the farms cultivated by you. 
How many would be out of work if only two were needed to 

watch the sheep ? 
Why are fewer men needed in grazing? 

Point out that these changes forced hundreds of men to seek a 
livelihood in the New World. 

Give some account of religious persecutions in England and 
Europe. Tell how the Puritans or Separatists wanted to form con- 
gregations which could worship apart from the Church or State 
religion, and how they wished to separate State and Church. Draw 
a diagram like the following to show the union of Church and State: 



HISTORY 319 




LAws 



Question the pupils, thus: 

What if some did not follow the state religion ? 
Suppose two states had different religions? 
How would the people in a conquered land fare ? 

Show how the union of Church and State assumed immense pro- 
portions in the Thirty Years War, in which the Hapsburgs of 
Austria and Spain fought against Sweden and some of the German 
States. Let the pupils read about Tilly, Wallenstein, Gustavus 
Adolphus, and Richelieu. Point out the effects of the war on the 
land. Emphasise the fact that the years of the war correspond 
closely with the period of colonisation, and that the general unrest 
set men thinking of new lands and new homes. 

In English history, direct the pupils in reading on the following 
topics : 

The Elizabethan Age, 1558-1603 

Growth of London as a commercial center 

Growth of English industry and commerce 

XMe of chimneys, bedding, glass, etc. 

Exploits of Drake, Frobisher, Hawkins, and Raleigh 

Defeat of the Spanish Armada, 1588 

Literature — Spenser, Shakespeare, Bacon 

The Reformation and Revival of Learning 

The Stuart kings — James I, Charles I, Charles II, James II 

The idea of the divine right of kings 
The idea of representative government 
Conflicts with (1) House of Commons, and (2) the 
Puritans 



320 SPECIAL METHODS 

Execution of Charles I, 1649 

Cromwell, the Commonwealth, and the Protectorate, 

1649-1660 
Navigation Act of 1651, and the wars with the Dutch 
^Revolution of 1688 

After the pupils have read on the different topics, let them trace 
the growth of English commerce, the naval supremacy of the 
English, the increased powers of Parliament, etc. Ask the class to 
select the important events or phases under one of the suggested 
heads. Compare the government with government in the colonies 
and with present government. 

Let the pupils outline the growth of commerce in the colonies. 
Let them read about the activities of the colonies, etc. By means of 
a map show the difference between the groups of colonies, in climate, 
resources, activities, etc. Have the pupils point out routes of com- 
merce. Question them as follows : 

Name some of the products of the northern colonies. 

Of the southern. Of the middle. 

Where would the New England States send fish, cereals, 

woolens ? 
What would ihey get from the South? From the West 

Indies ? 
How would they get beaver and other skins? 
Where was most of the tobacco sent? 

Let the pupils point out the routes of the coast trade, the West 
India trade, and the transatlantic trade. Show one form of trade, 
the rum-molasses-slave route, by the following diagram: 




HISTORY 321 

Let the pupils work out other routes and tell what was sent and 
what was received. 

Take up the question of labor in the colonies. Contrast slavery 
with the system of indenture by means of the following outline : 

Slave Indented servant 



Cost, £10-£50 
Life service 
Cheaper to keep 



Cost of passage, £6-£10 
Service for about 5 years 
Treated better 



Lead the pupils to fill out the comparison as follows : 

Where did slavery flourish ? Why 2 

Who gave better service? Why? 

Why could not the Indians be used as laborers ? 

Tell the class stories about the kidnapping of children for inden- 
tured service, and the shipping of criminals to the new country. 
Note the following to show the improvements in agriculture and 
manufactures, and the increased demand for labor : 

Smelting furnace was erected near Lynn in 1643. 
Joseph Jenks received a patent for the manufacture of 

scythes, 1646. 
First sawmill was erected at Salmon Falls, N. H., 1663. 

Write the topics on the board and let the pupils enumerate 
manufactured articles, as, nails, agricultural implements, firearms, 
anchors, etc., boats, ships, etc. Trace the Navigation Acts to this 
increased activity, and to the resulting competition with the mother 
country. If necessary, spend several lessons on these topics. 

2. The Dutch, (a) Fourth year. The home state. Treat the 
history of New York by means of illustration, story and reading. 
Take up such topics as, the discovery of the Hudson, trading with 
the Indians, customs of the Dutch, the governors, legends of the 
Hudson, etc. Do not attempt any formal study. 

(b) Fifth and sixth years. Locate the settlements of the Dutch 
by means of the following map : 



322 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Question the pupils as follows : 

Who discovered the Hudson River? 
Why did the Dutch settle here? 

Mark out and name the trading posts as you dis- 
cuss and question. Tell the pupils or let them 
read about the grants given to the 'patroons' to 
encourage farming, and how the difference of in- 
terests between them and the traders, artisans, and 
farmers led to Leisler's Rebellion in 1689. Take 
up such topics, as, settlement of New Amsterdam, 
purchase of Manhattan Island, rule of Peter Stuy- 
vesant, surrender to the English, etc. 

After a few lessons like the above, let the 
pupils study the following outline: 

New York 

Henry Hudson, 1G09 

New Amsterdam settled, 1623 

Name changed by English to New York, 1664 

People 

| Peter Minuit, Peter Stuyvesant, Leisler, 

I Captain Kidd 

J Patroons, traders, artisans, farmers 

Products, furs, wheat, flour 

Government, Proprietary, then royal 



Let the pupils expand each of the topics, 
thus: 



Question the class, 



What settlements were north of New Netherland? 

Why did the English claim the land? 

Why should they want New York ? 

How was Leisler's Rebellion like Bacon's? 



South? 



Have the pupils study the outline visually. Call upon them to 
give an account of the Dutch settlements, and of the rivalry between 
the English and the Dutch. Give a date and have pupils tell the 
event. Name events and let pupils give the date. 



HISTORY 323 

(c) Seventh and eighth years. Present briefly the rise of the 
Dutch Republic and the rivalry on the seas between the Dutch and 
the English. Let the pupils read about the Navigation Act of 1651, 
and have them tell how it operated against the Dutch. Point out 
that the naval wars with the Dutch were the results of England's 
growing commerce and her expansion as a seafaring nation. Have 
the pupils compare the reasons for the English settlements with the 
reason for the Dutch settlement. 

3. The Spanish and the French. (a) Fifth and sixth years. 
Draw a map of North America on' the board. Let the pupils note 
the areas settled by the French and those conquered by the Spanish. 
Mark on the map the following cities : Quebec, 1608 ; Montreal, 1609 ; 
Detroit, Louisiana ; and for the Spanish, St. Augustine, 1565. Ques- 
tion the pupils as follows : 

Why do we find the French along the Mississippi ? 

Why were their stations so far apart 1 ? 

What did they do at these stations ? 

Why did the Spanish overrun Mexico and South America 1 

Point out the effects of fur trading on the development of settle- 
ments. Compare the widely distributed posts with the compact 
English settlements. Let the pupils read about the French mission- 
aries and explorers, about the establishment of St. Augustine, etc. 

(b) Seventh and eighth years. Tell the pupils or let them read 
about the struggles between Spain and the Netherlands, and the 
decline of Spanish power on the seas. Take up the persecutions 
of the Huguenots, and the temporary relief with the Edict of 
Nantes. Give some account of and let the pupils read about the 
reign of Louis XIV, the War of the Palatinate, 1688-1697, and the 
War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1714. Show how the devas- 
tation of the Palatinate sent thousands of Germans to Pennsylvania, 
just as the continued persecution of the Huguenots in France sent 
many to the Carolinas. 

III. English Supremacy 

1. Indian wars. Fifth and sixth years. Let the pupils read 
about Indian life and customs. Compare the French treatment of 
the Indians with that of the English. Question the pupils as follows : 



324 SPECIAL METHODS 

How did the Indians live? Where did they get food? 

How were they useful to the English at first? 

Why did not the English have to depend upon them later ? 

What trade was carried on with the Indians? 

Why did the French cultivate the friendship of the Indians ? 

Why did not fur trading crowd out the Indians? 

Why did farming, agriculture and manufacturing? 

Show how the Indians were gradually crowded out of the lands 
which belonged to them and how they tried to drive out the English. 
Let the pupils read about the Pequot War, 1635-1637, and King 
Philip's War, 1675-1678. Do not attempt any formal study of these 
events. 

2. Intercolonial wars. Fifth and sixth years. Let the pupils 
read about the three wars, King William's, Queen Anne's, and King 
George's. Present them simply as offshoots of troubles in Europe. 
For the French and Indian War, draw the following map on the 
board : 




Explain and question as follows : 

In what direction would the English expand? 
Why did they not bother with the interior befors ? 
On what grounds did they claim the land? 
On what grounds did the French claim the land? 



HISTORY 



325 



Show how the French advanced to the other side of Lake Erie, 
and met with the English at Fort Duquesne, 1754. Let the pupils 
read about Braddock's defeat. 

Draw the following map on the board: 




Point out the French strongholds. Question as follows: 

What did Louisburg protect? Ticonderoga ? 

How could the English reach Ticonderoga? Quebec? 

Why did the English have a better chance of winning ? 

Let the pupils read about the attempts of the English to gain 
these strongholds. Point to the map and outline the expeditions. 
Refer to the map to show the positions of France and England 
before the war and after the Treaty of Paris in 1763. 



Write the following outline on the board : 

French and Indian War 

Ohio Company formed bv Virginia planters, 1750 
Defeat of Braddock, 1755 
Fall of Quebec.. 1759 
Treaty of Paris, 1763 



326 SPECIAL METHODS 

Have the pupils tell about each of the topics. Question them : 

Why was the Ohio Company formed? 

What was their claim? 

What was the French claim? 

Name some of the strongholds of the French, 

Why did the Five Nations aid the English? 

What were the terms of the treaty? 

Direct the class in a formal study of the outline, thus : 

Read over the topics. 

Read over the first two. Repeat them softly. 

Look at them again. Close eyes. 

Try to repeat the topics. Open eyes. 

Call upon pupils to come before the class and recite the outline. 
Ask others to tell about the events more fully. 

3. Attempts at union. Fifth and sixth years. Draw a map on 
the board and indicate roughly the New England colonies, the middle 
colonies, and the southern. Have the pupils point to the map and 
describe the land, the climate and the people. Question them, thus : 

How did the occupations in the north differ from those in 

the south? 
How was one of use to the other? What trading went on? 
Which colonies first grouped themselves together? 
How did the Indian Wars help unite the colonies? 
What other wars made them think of themselves as one? 

Why? 

Let the pupils read about the New England Confederacy, 1643; 
the Congress at Albany, 1754, and Franklin's plan of union. Show 
how the natural position of the colonies with the Alleghanies on 
one side and the Atlantic on the other would tend towards a unifica- 
tion of the people. 

4. European history. Seventh and eighth years. Take up the 
supremacy of the English in America somewhat in the manner indi- 
cated above, but more briefly by means of map study, topical out- 
lines, and reading. In addition trace briefly the activities of the 
English during the Seven Years' War in Europe and in Tndia under 
the direction of William Pitt. 



HISTORY 



327 



IV. Colonial Supremacy 

1. Conflicting interests. Sixth through eighth years. Take up 
the commerce of the colonies, and England's atttempts to control it. 
Question the pupils : 

Where did New England send the dried fish ? 
Where did the sugar and molasses come from? 
Explain how they were used. 
How was the tea obtained? 

Indicate the routes of commerce by means of the following 
diagram : 




flOl-*-** 1 ^ 



Show how the Navigation Acts would change these routes, thus : 



CP_c* 



x rt?* 



x^v*"* 




ftNP 



328 SPECIAL METHODS 

Question the pupils as follows : 

Why did England want all goods to go to her ports? 
How would tax on molasses affect the rum-slave trade? 
How did the colonists evade the Trade Acts? 
What is smuggling ? Why were not the colonists punished ? 

Show how manufactures were prohibited by these same Acts. Let 
the pupils read in their histories about the topics presented. 

Explain the plan of government in the colonies. Draw the fol- 
lowing diagram on the board: 




| co^wc^ 



Question the pupils as follows : 

Who appointed the governor? The council? 
Who paid the governor's salary? How? 
How was a law passed? 
How could a governor be forced to sign a law? 

Point out that the governor and his council represented the 
English government. Show that he was practically without power. 
Have the pupils tell the effect of the presence of troops from Eng- 
land. Let them explain why the colonists would oppose such a move. 
Let the pupils read about the effects of the French and Indian War 
on the self-confidence of the colonists. 

2. New policy of colonial control. Sixth through eighth yeats. 

Let the pupils read about the English plans of control. Let the 
pupils select the leading topics and write them on the board, thus : 

Navigation Acts were to be enforced 

Taxes were to be raised to meet expenses of government 

Troops were to be established in America 



HISTORY 329 

Question the pupils on each of the topics : 

How were the Navigation Laws to be enforced ? 

What was a 'Writ of Assistance?' 

How was money to be raised to pay for the troops? 

How was the Stamp Act received? 

How was money raised in the colonies before? 

Trace the succession of measures and their results and show them 
by means of the following: 

Taxation of the Colonies 



The Stamp Act, 1765 


Riots and protests 


Repeal, 1766 




Tax on glass, tea, 


Protests, letter sent by 


colors, paper 


Massachusetts 


Repeal-tea tax 


Tea party 


Troops in Boston 


Boston massacre, 1770 



Point out that each act on the part of England was resisted 
by the Colonies, and that England was finally driven to send troops. 
Let the pupils read about and discuss the topics. Show how the 
further attempt of England to coerce Massachusetts by means of 
the Five Acts, led to a further unification of the colonists and the 
meeting of the First Continental Congress at Philadelphia, in 1774. 

Write the following topics on the board : 

Navigation Acts 

The Stamp Act, 1765 

Revenue tax 

Tea tax 

Use of troops 

Boston massacre, 1770 

Call upon pupils to explain each of the topics. Question them : 

Why was the Stamp Act passed ? 

How was it received? What was the result? 

What other tax was substituted? What was the result? 

What action did Boston take? 

What did England do? 

What other measures were taken to punish Massachusetts? 

After the pupils have recited and discussed the topics, let them 
study them formally. 

3. The Revolution. Sixth through eighth years. Let the 
pupils read about the coming of Gage of Boston, his attempt at 
military government, and the first skirmish at Lexington in 1775. 



330 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Take up the fighting around Boston and the meeting of the Second 
Continental Congress in 1775. Have the pupils explain why inde- 
pendence was sure to be declared. Read parts of the Declaration 
of Independence, and have the pupils read. Direct and question 
them as follows: 

Look for the protests against military occupation. 
What taxes were imposed 'without our consent?' 
What mention is made of the 'Five intolerable Acts?' 
Where is there reference to the Hessians? 
Which Congress is 'in general Congress assembled?' 

ShoAV the effects of the Declaration in the change of name 
'Colonies,' to 'United States of America,' and in the preparations 
for serious war. 

Draw the following map on the board: 




v/f\u\.£7 



HISTORY 331 

Explain and question as follows : 

Why did the first battles take place around Boston? 
What could the English do if they controlled the Hudson ? 
Where would the troops have to go to control the Hudson ? 
Now look at the southern states. 
Where would the English begin to attack them? 

Let the pupils read about the operations around New York and 
New Jersey. Refer to the map and trace Burgoyne's march and 
his defeat. Show how his surrender broke up the plan to cut the 
colonies in half and how it secured aid from France. Take up the 
campaign in the South. Follow the retreat of Cornwallis and let 
the pupils read about his defeat at Yorktown. After several les- 
sons, let the pupils study the following events in a formal manner: 

First Continental Congress, 1774 

Second Continental Congress, 1775 

Battle of Bunker Hill 1775 

Declaration of Independence, 1776 

Surrender of Burgoyne, 1777 

Surrender of Cornwallis, 1781 

Treaty of Paris, 1783 

4. The Constitution. Sixth through eighth years. Let the class 
read about the financial difficulties of the Continental Congress. 
Question the pupils as follows : 

Where does the government get money to-day? 

How is the city able to pay firemen, etc.? 

What was a great weakness in the Continental Congress ? 

What is paper money? When is it good? 

Tell about the Articles of Confederation. Let the pupils read 
parts of the Constitution to find out what the Americans were aim- 
ing at. Have them note the Preamble, and some of the powers of 
Congress. Ask them to compare some of these powers with the lack 
of power in the Continental Congress. Let them read how the 
people are represented in Congress, and how small states are repre- 
sented equally with large states. Have them turn back to the his- 
tory proper and read how the Constitution was fought over and 
finally adopted. 



332 SPECIAL METHODS 

V. The United States 

1. Administrations. Sixth through eighth years. Have the 
pupils read over the history silently. Ask them to note the impor- 
tant events. Call upon pupils to name them, and write them on the 
board as they are given. Question the class upon the topics, have 
pupils tell about them, and call upon some to read relevant parts 
in the history. Let them discuss the topics with books, and later 
without books. If the topics are connected in any way with previous 
events, bring out these connections. Illustrate with blackboard map 
whenever necessary. For example, take the administration of 
Andrew Jackson. Have the pupils read over the administration 
and select what they consider the important events. Write them on 
the board as follows: 

Andrew Jackson, 1829-1887 
The Spoils System 
Nullification Act of South Carolina 
Overthrow of the United States Bank. 

Question the pupils somewhat as follows : 

What were the industries of the North? 
Why did the North want a high tariff? 
Why did the South want a low tariff? 
What did the South raise? 
When did cotton become of great account? 
What statesman upheld the right of the Union to levy 
taxes ? 

Show how the introdution of slavery and the invention of the cotton 
gin had made cotton one of the leading products of the South. 
Emphasise the fact that, engaged in raising raw products, the South 
wanted to buy manufactured goods as cheaply as possible. In a 
similar manner the establishment of the United States Bank by 
Hamilton, and the effect of its overthrow can be taken up. 

2. Wars. Sixth through <iahtli years. Treat the wars very 
briefly. Outline the plan of campaign by means of a map, note the 
important positions, and let the pupils read about the causes of the 
war, some of the fighting which took place, and the results. Do not 
go into details and do not have the pupils memorise many dates. In 



HISTORY 333 

the War of 1812, take up chiefly the causes, Battle of Lake Erie, and 
the Victory at New Orleans. In the "War with Mexico, point out on 
a blackboard map the campaigns of General Taylor and General 
Scott. Lay chief stress on the causes of the war, the result, and the 
questions taken up in the Wilmot Proviso. In the Civil War, on a 
large map show (1) how the North controlled the Mississippi and 
blockaded the coast, (2) how Grant took Richmond, and (3) how 
Sherman marched to the sea. As the result of a long contest be- 
tween the planters of the South, and the manufacturers of the 
North, trace the growth of cotton raising, the continued agitation 
against the tariff, and the attempts on the part of the South to 
control Congress for this purpose, as shown in the Missouri Com- 
promise, the Wilmot Proviso, the Compromise of 1850 and the 
Kansas-Nebraska Bill. On the industrial side, show how the North 
actually grew more prosperous during the war by reason of in- 
creased exports of wheat, corn and cattle, and by greater activity 
in woolen manufactures, and in iron and steel products. Explain 
what the South meant by the expression, Cotton is king. Let the 
pupils tell why the war made the South continually poorer. For 
formal study take, Secession of the southern states, 1861; Monitor 
and Merrimac, 1862 ; Emancipation Proclamation, 1863 ; Gettysburg 
and Vicksburg, 1863: Sherman's March to the Sea, 1864; Ap- 
pomatox, 1865. 

3. Intensive study. Seventh and eighth years. Have the 
pupils trace movements, follow up topics, and construct outlines. 
Bring out the basic causes back of a series of events. Take up (1) 
the tariff and slavery, (2) industry and invention, (3) transporta- 
tion and communication, (4) money and finance, (5) national ex- 
pansion, (6) political parties, and (7) education and literature. 

(a) The tariff and slavery. Have the pupils bring labels which 
tell 'Made in Germany,' 'Made in England,' etc. Ask them to take 
out their penknives and tell where the knives were made. Question 
the class: 

How did the knives, cloth, etc., get here? 
How can we help American manufacturers sell knives? 
Who gets the money paid for taxes on imported goods? 
Who pays such taxes ? Who pays in the end ? 



334 SPECIAL METHODS 

Read some of the articles of a modern tariff. Explain the difference 
between a protective tariff and a revenue tariff. Let the pupils use 
their books. Question them further : 

Why did South Carolina protest against the tariff in 1832 ? 

What did Jackson do? Look up what took place. 

Look up other conflicts about the tariff. 

How could the South prevent a high tariff? 

Look up her attempts to get more states admitted as slave. 

As the pupils name them write the following topics on the board : 

Missouri Compromise, 1820 
Nullification Act of South Carolina, 1832 
Wilmot Proviso, 1848 
Compromise of 1850 
Kansas-Nebraska Bill. 1.854 
The Civil War, 1861-1865 

Have the pupils explain why the South needed more land, how it 
tried to get more states admitted as slave so as to have more votes 
in Congress, and how the aim of it all was control of the tariff and 
legislation favorable to the planters. Show that slavery was not 
really the main issue, and that Lincoln, when elected, had promised 
not to interfere with slavery. Point out that the present discontent, 
due to 'high cost of living,' is a phase of the same movement, with 
different parties. 

(b) Industry and invention. Have the pupils look up the 
inventions which they consider of importance. Write the names on 
the board and add others, thus : 

Samuel Slater introduced the Arkwright spinning 

machines, 1790 
Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, 1793 
Robert Fulton built his steamboat. 1807 
Joseph Smith built a grate to burn hard coal. 1812 
Cyrus Hall McCormick patented his reaper, 1834 
Elias Howe patented the sewing machine, 1846 

Let the pupils read about the inventions and their effect on 
industry. Show how the North profited by most of them. Ask the 
pupils to explain why the cotton gin mado slavery profitable in the 
South, and why improvement in manufacturing increased the white 
population in the North. 



HISTORY 



335 



(c) Transportation and communication. Have the pupils ap- 
preciate present conditions and then let them compare these condi- 
tions with the state of affairs in former days. Question them as 
follows : 

How will you order goods down town f How else ? 

How will they reach you ? How did they get to the store ? 

Name important water ways. Railroads. 

Compare the condition of New York before and after the construc- 
tion of the Erie Canal. Illustrate the canal as follows : 




Show how freight per ton from Albany to Buffalo was reduced 
from $120 to $14. Let the pupils explain why the population of 
New York increased, and how the West was better able to develop. 
Have them trace the growth of the railroad system. Take up the 
use of postage stamps by the Post Office in 1847, the erection of the 
first telegraph by Morse in 1844, the laying of the Atlantic Cable 
by Field in 1858, and the use of the Bell telephone in 1877. Show 
how the men who control the railroads can shut out competition on 
the part of small producers. 



(d) Money and finance. Ask the pupils to find when the pine- 
tree shilling was coined, and tell about the kinds of money used by 
the Colonies. Have the class read about the paper money used 
during the Revolution. Show the class a dollar bill. Question them : 

Why will this buy a dollar 's worth of goods ? 

Why were the bills in the Revolution not worth much ? 

Who wants to read what is on this bill? 



336 SPECIAL METHODS 

Let the pupils read about the establishment of the mint in 1791 
and have them trace the beginning of the national bank system. 
Explain why national bank notes are good. Take up the different 
panics and ask the pupils what lies back of a commercial crisis. 
Discuss with the class how Congress can raise money, and let the 
pupils read the powers of Congress in this connection as specified 
in the Constitution. 

(e) National expansion. By means of a map show what con- 
stituted the United States in 1783. Have the pupils look up the 
additions to 1845 or 1848. Mark them off on the map. Let the 
class tell what natural resources are to be found in the different 
acquisitions. Have the pupils explain what other benefits accrued 
to the United States. Take up the rest of the acquisitions in the 
same way. Make a large map on shade or cardboard to show the 
territorial growth and let it be a part of the classroom furnishing. 

(/) Political parties. Spend some time on the early political 
history during Washington's administration. Make clear the mean- 
ing of 'strict' and 'loose' construction of the Constitution. Let the 
pupils read about the policies of the different parties. Write the 
following outline on the board : 

Federalist Anti-Federalist 

I ! 

Federalist Republican 

Republican 

Era of Good Feeling 
1817-1825 



Nat. Repub. Democratic 

I I 

Whig Democratic 

! „ I 

Republican Democratic 

Point out that the old Republican party of the time of Jefferson 
is the present Democratic party. 

(g) Education and literature. Give the pupils some idea of 
what education means. Question them as follows : 



CIVICS 337 

Why do you go to school? 

What will you be able to do when you leave school? 

What do you intend to work at? 

How will you prepare for such work ? 

Let the pupils read about the establishment of schools in the 
colonies, first in New England and later in the other colonies. Show 
how the rise of industry and commerce has made new demands upon 
the school. Compare the instruction in the three R's with what is 
needed in the trades and industries, as, iron working, weaving, 
building, etc. In literature, take up in a systematic manner, Wash- 
ington Irving, Cooper, Longfellow, Poe, Bryant, Whittier, Lowell, 
Holmes, etc. Read to the class and let the pupils read interesting 
selections of the author taken up for the week. Let the pupils read 
for appreciation and enjojnnent, chiefly. Write on the board the 
name of the author, and some of his most important writings. 

On each of the above series of topics spend several lessons if 
necessary. After reading, discussion, illustration and questioning, 
let the pupils study in a formal manner about five or six' of the most 
important events in the series. 

4. European history and world relations. Seventh and eighth 
years. In addition to the topics in American history, present such 
history of England and Europe as is necessary to make them more 
clear. Take up such topics as, the French Revolution, the rise of 
Napoleon, the conflict between the French and the English, etc. 
Deal briefly with the rise of Prussia, the uniiication of Germany, 
the independence of Italy, and recent developments in Russia, 
China, and Japan. Discuss the position of the United States as a 
world power. Explain the Monroe Doctrine, the meaning of 'the 
open door' in China, and the effects of the rivalry in commerce 
between countries. Show the use of the navy, and emphasise the 
increase in friendship between England and America, and the 
growing importance of Japan in the East. Illustrate the impor- 
tance of the Panama Canal, and show the workings oP the Hague 
Tribunal. 

VI. Civics 

1. Local government. In the beginning of the term announce 
an election of class officers. Write the names of the offices on the 
board, thus : 



338 SPECIAL METHODS 

Election of officers, next Friday afternoon 

Class President 
Vice-President 
Secretary 
Treasurer 

On the afternoon appointed, explain to the class how to nominate 
and vote. Let pupils nominate candidates for president. Write 
the names on the board. Pass blank papers to the pupils. Instruct 

them to vote for their candidate, ' I vote for , ' and to sign 

their name at the bottom. Have each candidate name two tellers, 
one to mark the votes on the board as they are called out, and one 
to watch and see that the votes are properly marked and counted. 
Collect the votes, count the votes and the voters, and then slowly 
open each vote and read out the name of the candidate. As you 
read, have the teller assigned to the name, mark the vote on the 
board. The vice-president may be elected the same way, and the 
other officers elected on the following school day. Or, the one 
receiving the highest number of votes may be elected president, the 
one with the second highest number, vice-president, and so on. If 
the vote is close, as usually happens, let the class vote again for the 
two candidates who have almost the same number of votes. Allow 
applause and the usual orderly comment and excitement. 

Consult with the class officers or ' Committee, ' offer names for a 
'Sanitary Squad,' monitorships, etc., and let the Committee select 
the pupils for these positions. Call these officers the Sub-Committee. 
In the higher grades meet with the Committees a day or two after 
their election and talk over with them their powers and duties. Let 
them write them out. After a few days submit them to the class. 
Discuss them in class, and in a day or two let the class vote on the 
different clauses. Have a copy of this Constitution neatly framed or 
mounted and hung in some part of the room. If there already is a 
Class Constitution, consult with the Committees regarding changes 
or improvements, present these to the class, and vote as suggested. 
If possible, let each pupil have a copy of the Class Constitution. In 
the seventh and eighth years let the class president appoint nine 
members of a court. Have the powers of the court outlined, dis- 
cussed and voted upon as in the case of the Class Constitution. 



CIVICS 339 

In the formation of the Constitution let the Committees read 
carefully the Constitution of the United States, and notify the class 
to do the same. Let them word the different, clauses on the model of 
the United States Constitution, thus: 

CONSTITUTION OF THE CLASS OF 8B1 
PUBLIC SCHOOL 86, 1912 

We, the Pupils of Class 8B1, in order to form a more 
perfect union, establish justice, promote the general wel- 
fare, and secure the blessings of order to our friends and 
ourselves, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the 
Class of 8B1. 

Article I 

Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall 
be vested in a Class Committee which shall consist of a 
President, Vice-President. Secretary, and Treasurer ; and . 
in a Sub-committee, which shall consist of a Sanitary 
Squad, and Monitors properly selected and appointed. 

Section 2. The Class Committee shall be composed of 
members of Class 8B1 in good standing, elected every two 
months by the pupils of Class 8B1. The Sub-committee 
shall be composed of the three members of the Sanitary 
Squad, and of Monitors, all of whom shall be members of 
Class 8B1 in good standing; and they shall be nominated 
by the Class Teacher, selected by the Class Committee, and 
appointed to duty by the Class President. 

Section 3. Upon written request signed by three 
members of Class 8B1, any officer must be tried for im- 
peachment by the members of Class 8B1. No person shall 
be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the 
members present. Upon conviction, the office shall be de- 
clared vacant, and a new election ordered. If the Presi- 
dent be convicted, the Vice-President shall take his place. 

Section 4. 1. The Class Committees shall have power 
to collect money and provide for the general welfare of 
Class 8B1; 

2. To regulate intercourse with other classes and other 
schools ; 

3. To promote the progress of art and science and 
instruction therein by securing specimens, maps, illustra- 
tions, clippings, pictures, and whatever will assist in in- 
structing the members of Class 8B1 and decorating the 
room: 



340 SPECIAL METHODS 

4. To receive complaints, suggest improvements, and 
forward them to the Class Teacher; 

5. To arrange and prepare for entertainments, ath- 
letic meets, outings, and Class Day; 

6. To make rules for the government and regulation 
of Class 8B1 and the members thereof; 

7. To make all laws which shall be necessary and 
proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers 
and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the 
government of the Class of 8B1, or in any department or 
officer thereof; provided such laws meet with the approval 
of the Class Teacher. 

Section 5. No money shall be drawn from the treas- 
ury, but in consequence of appropriation made by law ; and 
a regular statement and account of the receipts and expen- 
ditures of all Class money shall be published from time 
to time. 

Section 6. The Committee shall assemble at least once 
in every week, and such meeting shall be upon a day set 
by the Class President. The secretary shall make a record 
of the proceedings, which record shall be open to inspec- 
tion by any member of Class 8BT. 

Article II 

Section 1. The executive power shall be vested in a 
President of the Class of 8B1. He shall hold office during 
the term of two months, or during the existence of the 
Class within the term for which he has been elected. 

Section 2. 1. He shall have power to name the day on 
which any class election shall be held; 

2. To name the day on which the weekly meeting of 
the Class Committee shall be held ; 

3. To call for a special meeting of the Class Com- 
mittees at any time ; 

4. To appoint to duty members of the Sub-committee ; 

5. To assign to special duty any in embers of the Class 
Committees at any time that he sees fit. 

Section 3. He shall, upon the absence of the Class 
Teacher, assume full charge of the Class of 8B1 ; and any 
action taken, or mark given, or assignment made by him 
while in charge shall receive the serious consideration and 
support of the Class Teacher. 

Section 4. Tn any meeting of the Class Committees, 
he shall count as two voles. 



CIVICS 341 

Article III 

The Class Committees, whenever two thirds of both 
Committees shall deem it necessary, shall propose amend- 
ments to this Constitution, or, on the application of any 
three members of the Class of 8B1, shall call a meeting of 
the Class for proposing amendments, which, in either case, 
shall be valid to all intents and purposes, when ratified by 
three fourths of the members of Class 8B1 present; pro- 
vided the Class Teacher approve. 

Article IV 

The Class Teacher shall have power of impeachment 
of any officers of Class 8B1; and, for good cause, shall 
have absolute power of removal. 

Consult with the class officers and have them formulate regula- 
tions to govern entrance, dismissal, conduct in the halls, in the yard, 
on the stairs and on the street. Have them arrange for care of 
clothing, care of supplies, correction of papers, assignments of class 
work, inspection of desks, books, etc. Send the class president to the 
principal of the school and arrange for a day on which the Class 
Committee, can find what arrangements the principal has made for 
entrance, dismissal, conduct in the yards, etc. In such a case see 
the, principal and explain matters so that he will be prepared 
properly to receive the president and his committee. Have the 
regulations announced to the class and posted where all may read 
them. Use class government of this kind as a means of instruction 
in civics and of developing class spirit, and not as a device to shift 
responsibility of class discipline. 

In a series of lessons present the different departments of the 
town or city government. Begin with some department which is 
familiar to the children. Take, for example, the police department. 
In the lower grades show pictures of policemen, of the station house, 
of the jail and prison, etc. Question the pupils, thus: 

Who has seen policemen ? Who knows any policeman ? 
Who has seen a policeman do anything? What? 
What do they do at night? In the daytime? 
What do they do at parades? At meetings? At fires? 
What do policemen wear ? Why ? 



342 SPECIAL METHODS 

Let the pupils read about policemen, their life on the streets, in 
the station house, in the courts, etc. Present vividly the life of 
prisoners and impress the nature of crime, even in less degree, as 
in the case of building fires on the street, pilfering from stands, 
destroying public or private property, and so on. Trace what hap- 
pens to a prisoner, in the station house, in the court, in the prison, 
and after release. In the higher grades take up the police depart- 
ment more fully. Let the pupils read parts of the charter which 
relate to the police. Get a copy of a police report and present such 
features as, qualifications necessary to become a policeman, duties 
of the police, officers, organisations, etc. In much the same manner 
present other public officials, as, the fireman, the school physician, 
the nurse, the inspector of the Board of Health, the truant officer, 
the street cleaner, etc. In the higher grades, let each pupil have a 
copy or an abstract of the child labor law and the compulsory educa- 
tion law, and have them devote some time to a formal study of 
these laws. 

Let the class read about the three great departments, the legis- 
lative, the executive, and the judicial. Procure copies of some ordi- 
nances relating to such actions as, report of contagious diseases, 
removal of garbage, construction of houses, condition of fire escapes, 
etc. Write the leading features of the ordinance upon the board and 
let the pupils read and discuss them. Question the class as follows : 

What are some of the contagious diseases? 

What letter should be written to the Board of Health ? 

Read the letter. Read the address. 

What will the Board of Health do ? 

What is meant by 'disinfection of the premises?' 

In the same way discuss other ordinances which relate closely 
to the home life of the children. Show where the ordinance is 
originated, and how it is passed. Take up other duties of the City 
Council and of the Mayor. In the higher grades let the pupils read 
portions of the charter which tell of the duties of the Mayor and 
of the Council, how the officials are elected, how long they serve, 
and the like. In a similar manner deal briefly with the court, the 
judge, and the jury. 



CIVICS 343 

2. State and national government. In the lower grades show 
pictures of the letter carrier, of the post office, and of the different 
kinds of stamps, money order blanks, etc. Let the pupils read about 
the postal system. Question as follows: 

Who pays the letter carrier? 

Where does the money come from? 

How is the money raised? By what right? 

Let the pupils read those parts of the Constitution which deal 
with the powers of Congress. Take up some specific bill and show 
how it may become a law. Illustrate the three departments of 
government as follows: 




[hoo^s * F |Js E tf./VTfcl 

I I mmi ■fllTlllllW MMWlllilf Vim m lUll III *MMMwJ 

\tmmmmmmmmtmmmmmm 

Let the pupils read about the formation of the Constitution, 
why the Senate was constituted as it is, and how the Constitution 
differed from the old Articles of Confederation. In the higher 
grades show how government officials are elected or selected. At 
election time secure as many blank ballots as possible. Mount some 
and keep others for class use. Let the pupils read the ballots. Ex- 
plain the process of voting. Point out that the people do not vote 
directly for the President, and show this by means of sample ballots. 
Let the pupils read those parts of the Constitution which deal 
with the election of the President, Senators and Representatives. 
Present briefly the selection and the duties of the Supreme Court. 
In much the same manner take up the departments of the state 
government. 

, In the higher grades let the pupils read about and discuss the 
government of Great Britain. Illustrate the departments of govern- 
ment as follows : 



344 SPECIAL METHODS 



V ■*■' in i urn i ■ i— '** 

t 1 " M wTr"aim | J"* 11 ■'" 'I 

cow nor/sM u o *** ^ J 



Have the pupils compare the powers and duties of King with 
President, House of Lords with Senate, and House of Commons 
with House of Representatives. Show the position of Prime Min- 
ister in English politics. Show the rise of representative govern- 
ment in England. Deal briefly with the great legislative bodies, 
(1) the Witan, (2) the Norman Great Council, (3) Simon de Mont- 
fort's Parliament, and (4) the Model Parliament; and with the 
great state papers, (1) the Charter of Liberties, (2) the Magna 
Charta, (3) the Petition of Eight, (4) the Bill of Eights, and (5) 
the Eeform Bill of 1832. In a series of lessons let the pupils read 
about and discuss the conditions which gave rise to the popular 
assembly, the nature of its work, and its comparison with the 
present Parliament. Outline the contents of the great state papers. 
Let the pupils read parts of the American Declaration of Indepen- 
dence, and compare some of its sections with those of the English 
documents. Present briefly similar developments in representative 
government in Germany, Japan, Eussia, and China. 

VII. Use of the Text-Book 

1. Reading. Fourth and fifth years. Conduct the lesson as a 
typical reading lesson. Write the difficult words and important 
names and dates on the board. For example, a reading lesson on 
Bacon's Rebellion would yield words like the following: 

Tyranny of Governor Berkeley 

Bacon's Eebellion in 1676 

House of Burgesses 

to show loyalty 

a small volunteer force 

Call upon some of the pupils to pronounce the words. Tell what 
the words mean. Illustrate the meaning in sentences and have 



HISTORY 345 

the pupils do the same. Let the pupils read either aloud or silently. 
After the pupils have read a thought whole, question them as 
follows : 

Who was Governor Berkeley? 
• What did he do? Why? 
Why were the people compelled to defend themselves? 
Who was Nathaniel Bacon? 
What did he do ? Why ? 
How was the rebellion suppressed? 

Then call upon pupils to tell in a series of sentences about (1) 
Governor Berkeley, (2) Nathaniel Bacon, (3) the complete event 
from beginning to end. Simply give the topic and say nothing till 
the pupil has finished. Allow no prompting. Let several pupils 
express themselves on the same topic. 

2. Topical study. Sixth through eighth years. Conduct the 
reading lesson somewhat in the manner suggested in the preceding 
paragraph. In addition let the pupils select the topics of the para- 
graphs read. After a paragraph has been read, question and direct 
as follows: 

What person or event is taken up in the paragraph? 
What happened? When? Where? Why? 

As the pupils give topics and topic sentences, write them on the 
board with whatever slight changes are necessary, thus : 

Governor Berkeley was chosen in 1642. 

Indians burned houses and murdered many Virginians. 

Nathaniel Bacon led a volunteer force against them. 

He took Jamestown and drove out Governor Berkeley, 1676. 

Bacon died and Berkeley hanged many of the rebels. 

With the topics before them, have pupils tell about the re- 
bellion. Let them tell 'Why' the different actions were taken, and 
what resulted. Call upon the pupils to describe 'How' the events 
took place, and 'What kind' of persons were concerned. As the 
pupil is reciting, do not interrupt or prompt him in any way. At 
the conclusion, let several tell the story briefly, from beginning to 
end. In such topical study, if the paragraph is too long or too com- 
plicated, divide it into a number of thought wholes of from ten to 



346 SPECIAL METHODS 

fifteen lines each, and treat each one separately. Take from five to 
ten of such thought wholes, let the pupils select the topic in each 
one, write them on the board, and let the pupils amplify them in 
the manner indicated. 

3. Dramatic interpretation. Sixth through eighth years. Let 
the pupils read about a topic, either silently or aloud. Then direct 
them to impersonate some particular person or type. Suggest situa- 
tions somewhat as follows: 

(a) Discoveries and explorations 

As Columbus, what would you have done? 

What would you have told the sailors ? 

How would you have tried to secure release from chains ? 

Suppose you were John Smith? 

How would you have secured supplies from the Indians ? 

How would you have made the settlers work? How else? 

(&) Colonisation 

Imagine that you are an English settler. 

Explain why you are going to Virginia. 

Tell what faults you find with the colony. 

How would you try to improve them ? 

Take the place of Governor Berkeley and explain. 

Put yourself in the place of Nathaniel Bacon and explain. 

As Peter Stuyvesant, what would you have done ? Explain. 

As an indented servant what fault do you find ? 

(c) English supremacy 

As a Virginian, what right have you to land in the Ohio 

Valley? 
Put yourself in the place of a French trapper, and explain. 
Put yourself in the place of an Indian, and explain. 
How would you have planned to take Quebec ? 

(d) Colonial supremacy 

"Why are you a New England smuggler? 
What right have you to evade the British customs? 
Take the place of a workman in England, and explain. 
What would you have done if men took your tea and 

spoiled it? 
Suppose you sent a man to collect taxes and he was tarred 

and feathered? 



HISTORY 347 

Imagine that your friend was killed at Lexington. Explain. 

Suppose that you were Governor Gage. Explain. 

Put yourself in the place of John Hancock, and explain. 

How would you have planned to take New York? 

How would you have planned to take Yorktown? 

Criticise the campaign of General Howe. 

What would you do if you were sent to France to get aid ? 

(e) The United States 

As a southern planter, criticise the government. 

As a northern manufacturer, criticise the government. 

Why do not you like to be a slave ? Explain. 

What would you have done as President ? 

Criticise the Missouri Compromise. 

What reasons have you for upholding ' state rights ? ' 

What have you against state rights? 

Why did you go to the west to settle? 

Criticise the campaign of General . 

What would you have done as President Johnson? 
Put yourself in the place of , and explain. 

In such dramatic interpretation do not allow the pupils to ramble 
along aimlessly. Restrict the interpretation to a few paragraphs 
or thought wholes. If necessary, have the class select and discuss 
the topics as suggested in the preceding. Write topics or topic 
sentences on the board. Give the class some time to think the 
matter over. Call upon individual pupils to express themselves on 
the situation presented. 

4. Dramatisation. Fourth through eighth years. After the 
pupils have read and discussed one or more topics, have them 
present the matter in dramatic form. Write an outline of one or 
more scenes on the board, thus: 

John Smith and Pocahontas 

Scene I. John Smith with two Indian guides, and two com- 
panions examine the bends of a river. 

Smith and one Indian guide go ahead. The others 
stay back. 

The Indian guide in the rear gives a signal. Band 
of Indians rush out, kill the men in the rear and take 
Smith prisoner. 



348 SPECIAL METHODS 

Scene II. Smith is bound and brought before Powhatan and 
his braves. 

Powhatan upbraids Smith and complains against 
the English. 

Powhatan orders a brave to lead Smith to the 
block. 

Pocahontas rushes forward. Falls on her knees 
before Powhatan. She begs for Smith's life, and then 
falls on Smith's neck. 

Powhatan slowly yields. 

Let the pupils read over the directions given. Call for volunteers 
to take the parts indicated. Let them go through the pantomime. 
Direct and question somewhat as follows: 

Now, John Smith, what are you asking your guide? 
Indian number one, what is your answer? 
Men, what are you talking about as Smith goes forward? 
What will you say against Smith, Powhatan? 

As the children talk and act, note the expressions used. "Write them 
down. Modify them and work up the dialogue, thus: 

Scene I 

Smith. Where did you say we could get corn? 
Guide I. A short way ahead where the river turns. 
Com. I. They said the river turned here. 

Smith. Let us go forward. 

(To his companions). Do you, my friends, stay back. 

Let no one pass from the rear. 
(Smith goes slowly forward, looking now to right, and now 

to left). 

Com. II. I like it not. Last night I tossed about and 
slept but little. I turned to where our leader lay. 
Methought I saw our guide take up a knife. 

Com. I. What, a knife! And did he try — 

Com. II. No, no. I rose and stretched myself. He then 
did hide his knife and roll about as if to sleep. 
Watch you closely what our guides will do. 

(Guide II. moves away. Makes a signal. Gives a shout 
and runs to meet a band of Indians who rush out. 
The two companions fight, but are killed. Smith is 
attacked and overcome. He is tied and led away) . 



HISTORY 349 

Scene II 

(Indian squaws and maids walk forward. Braves follow. 
Powhatan follows and seats himself. Smith is led in, 
an Indian on each side). 

Powhatan. You come and drive us from our homes. You 
have stolen our lands. You have killed our people. 
You have destroyed our fields. And now you must 
die. Lead him forward. 

Pocahontas. (Rushes forward). 0, father! (Falls before 
him) . Do not kill him. He is but one. What has he 
done that you should slay him. Spare him, father, 
spare him. (Raises her hands, turns toward 
Smith). If you kill him my life will go with his. 
Now, strike, if you must. (Bends over Smith and 
puts her arms around his neck) . 

Powhatan. Rise, daughter. Lead him away. You may 

be right. The Englishman may some time remain our 

friend. 
(Smith is led away. Two groups of Indian maids come 

forward, one from each side, dancing as they go and 

singing) . 

Song. We are Indian maids, careless and free. 

And as Indian maids, ever let us be. 
(Let music fit words and dance. Any simple, improvised 
tune will do). 

Insist that the pupils speak slowly, and pause after each action. 
Have the actions gone through first, and let the words fit in and 
explain the action. Let the dialogue be short. Do not allow 
lengthy speeches. 

Work up dialogues around situations of the following 
character : 

Attack on a Puritan Meeting 

Scene. I. Two or three Pilgrims, with guns, go slowly 
forward, looking to right and left. Pause. Look 
back and motion ahead. 

Band of women come slowly forward. After 
them come Pilgrims, guarding the rear. All march 
slowly across front and disappear at side. 

Several hymns are heard. Voice of preacher 
heard. Songs. 

Band passes slowly back. 



350 SPECIAL METHODS 

Scene II. As first band comes out, arrows are shot at them. 
Indians rush forward. Pilgrims step forward, scatter, 
and shoot. Skirmish keeps up. Several Pilgrims fall. 
Indians retreat and are slowly pursued. 

Women now come forward. Help the wounded. 
All sing hymn of thanksgiving. 

The Boston Tea Party 

Scene I. Mob scene. Several men come together and talk 
violently. Others join them. Still others come. One 
rises on a chair and addresses them. He tells them 
about the three ships of tea that are in the harbor. 

Scene II. Meeting of citizens. They sit and discuss meas- 
ures for preventing the tea from being landed. One 
slowly rises and proposes that a party go and throw 
the tea into the harbor. 

Scene III. Party of men dressed as Indians assemble. 
Motion and talk quietly. They suddenly run to the 
dock (row of desks or boxes) climb over the sides of 
the ship (row of teachers' desks) and hand up boxes 
which are thrown overboard. Return as they came. 

Election Time 

Scene I. Gathering of a crowd about a platform. Distribu- 
tion of circulars. Animated discussion. Arrival of 
the orator, or stump speaker, who mounts the plat- 
form. Speech, punctuated by comments and applause. 

Scene II. At the polls. Registering of voters. First officials 
come and take their places. Policeman walks up and 
down, and stands near the clerks. Several men (and 
a few women) enter, answer questions, sign, and 
depart. 

Scene III. At the polls. Voting. Scene is much like the 
above. Exciting incidents, like attempts at repeating, 
may be introduced. Policemen carry off ballot boxes. 
Polls close. 

Scene IV. The returns. Crowd waits in public place. 
Returns are called off. Usual crowd scenes may be 
introduced, as., blowing of horns, songs, removal of 
noisy or drunken intruders, etc. Candidate who has 
been elected comes forward, is congratulated, and 
make n short speech of thanks. 



HISTORY 351 

Dramatic tableaus may be presented, as, Franklin at the Court 
of France, pleading the American cause ; Washington delivering his 
Farewell Address ; a President taking the Oath of Office ; and so on. 
In civics, let the pupils take the part of senators and representatives, 
or members of the Cabinet, or judges of the Supreme Court, etc. 
Divide the class into two parts, one, the Senate, and two, the House 
of Representatives. Have som'e one introduce a Bill, let it be read, 
voted upon, passed to the other House, and then sent to the Presi- 
dent. Let the class represent the city council, or the state assembly 
and have them discuss some specific measures. Combine history and 
civics in this manner. Let the class represent the House of Bur- 
gesses in Virginia, at the time of Bacon's Rebellion, or the Council 
of Nine under Peter Stuyvesant, or the Constitutional Convention. 
Have the pupils imitate as closely as possible what ever characters 
they represent. 

VIII. Current Events 

Arrange a series of charts or bulletins for current events. Have 
one for events which concern the school, one for the city and state, 
one for the country, and one or two for outside countries. Have 
each bulletin properly labeled. Each week or two post interesting 
pictures and accounts of important events. Call upon the pupils 
to furnish material, and take a personal interest yourself. Once 
each week spend a few minutes in showing and explaining the pic- 
tures and in reading the accounts which are to be posted. 



CHAPTEK XIII 

THE STUDY OF NATURE — VISUAL 

I. Plants 

1. Contact with plant life.. First and second years. Secure or 
make a window box, from six to eight inches wide, six inches deep, 
and as long as the window is wide. If the box is of wood, keep the 
corners from warping by securing them with strips of brass or zinc, 
one or two inches wide and about six inches long, as indicated by 
the following diagram: 




Nearly fill the box with sifted earth mixed with rotted manure 
and a tablespoonful of prepared fertiliser. Marks off or indicate 
spaces which are to be devoted to the different kinds of plants. Get 
a catalogue from a seed store, and show the children pictures of 
what is to be planted. Mount the pictures and fasten them on the 
side of the box where the seeds are to be planted. Soak the seeds 
for twenty-four hours. Show the soaked seeds to the children. Then 
plant them at a depth four times the thickness of the seed. In one 
box plant vegetables, as, the bean, pea, corn, beet, potato, ('eye' of 
potato), etc. In another box, or in separate flower pots, plant seeds 
of flowering plants, as aster, marigold, morning glory, etc. In a 
third, or in part of the second box, plant some fruit seeds, as, the 
apple, lemon, orange, date, grape, etc. If bulbs, as, the tulip, 
hyacinth, or narcissus, are planted, water them well and keep them 
in a dark, cool place for from four to six weeks. Then place them 
in the sun and water them well. 

352 



PLANTS 353 

"When planting the seed, show the children the seed, the picture 
of the plant, and if possible, the plant, flower, or fruit itself. Note 
where the seed is planted, and mark the date. When the first shoot 
appears, mark the date. Bring the children up to the box, and after 
that let them see once or twice a week how the plants are growing. 
Give them a talk, bringing in the terms, 'leaf,' 'stem,' 'root,' and the 
necessity for warmth and moisture. Proceed somewhat as follows: 

See how the bean has come up. 

What is on top of the stem? 

Notice how light green the stem is. This stem is darker. 

What lifted the seed into the air ? 

How tightly the roots are holding the plant in the earth. 

See this big leaf, and this baby leaf. Which is darker? 

Notice how the plants turn toward the warm sun. 

Let the children go through dramatic motions and finger plays. 
Direct them as follows: 

We shall go with the wind, back and forth, back and forth. 

A strong wind is now coming. How the stems bend. 

Hold up your finger leaves. Now the wind is blowing. 

Kiss the little birds ' Good morning. ' 

Go to sleep, little flowers. Night-time is coming. 

Wake up, the morning is here. Greet the sun 'Good 

morning. ' 
Where are the little roots ? . Push around in the earth. 

Have the children use their fingers to imitate flower buds, leaves, or 
rootlets. Let their bodies or their arms represent stems or branches. 
Present different situations, as, a wind storm, rain, night-time, driv- 
ing snow, a hot dry day, friendship with other plants,with birds 
and insects, with children, etc. 

From time to time bring into the classroom as many flowers 
as possible, and armfuls of leaves and branches. Bring in only one 
or two kinds at a time. Introduce them by name. Talk and question 
thus: 

Are not these handsome Jack-in-the-pulpits ? 
Where is little Jack? 

Come up and say, ' How do you do ? ' to him 
Where is his pulpit? What color is it? 
Where is the stem? The root? 



354 SPECIAL METHODS 

Let the pupils go through finger plays, thus : 

Hold up one hand and make a pulpit, like this. 

Now put in Jack with the finger of the other hand. 

Let Jack go to sleep. Cover him up. 

Let him see the trees overhead. 

Now it is cold. The wind is blowing. 

Give a lesson in color work based on some plant or flower. Have 
a number of the plants fastened on cardboard and hung in front of 
the room. Call the plant by name and direct and question as follows : 

How big is Jack-in-the-pulpit ? 

What color is the pulpit % The stem ? 

"We shall make the pulpit first. Where shall we put Jack? 

What color are the roots ? 

Fill the room with an atmosphere of plant life. Let the children 
come into contact with plants. Pass around leaves, branches, flowers, 
etc., and, if possible, let each child take some home. Do not attempt 
any formal lessons on plants, or plant names. Simply try to make 
the children acquainted with green leaves, pretty flowers, shrubs, 
trees, and whatever plant life is within reach. If it is possible to 
take children directly to field or forest, arrange for an excursion, 
and at different halting places, give talks, and answer questions as 
suggested above. 

2. Nature study. Plants. Third and fourth years. Have win- 
dow box, leaves, branches, and flowers in the classroom, as indicated 
in the preceding section. In addition deal more systematically with 
the growth and life of plants. Construct a number of narrow boxes, 
about a foot long, six inches high, and from one to two inches thick. 
Let both of the long sides be of glass. The box will look something 
like the following : 




'Cla^* 



PLANTS 355 

Fill the box with earth, and plant the seed, near one end. As 
soon as it begins to sprout, plant another seed, an inch or two away 
from the first. When the second seed has sprouted, and the first is 
lifting its head above the earth, plant a third seed an inch or two 
away from the second. In this manner arrange a line of seeds which 
can be seen through the glass side, and which will show the different 
stages of growth. Spend some time in showing pupils how to raise 
plants of their own. Show a number of different seeds, and let the 
pupils express a preference. Supply them with small flower pots, 
filled with earth. Direct them as follows : 

Put your flower pot on the desk. 

Make a small hole in the earth, about one quarter of an 

inch deep. 
Put in your seed. Cover it. Press down the earth. 
Who wants to go round and water the pots? 

See that each pupil has his flower. pot labeled, with his name, the 
name of the seed, and the date of planting. When it is time, have 
the pupils bring larger pots, remove the plants in them, and take 
them home. A series of lessons can be given, to show the growth of 
different seeds. 

To show the conditions necessary for the growth of plants, 
arrange a series of glasses, jars, or small bottles as follows: (1) 
seeds in empty bottle, (2) seeds on a sponge or cotton soaked with 
water, (3) seeds on a sponge, with water to top of sponge, (4) seeds 
covered wholly with water, and (5) seeds in earth, watered from day 
to day. See that the seeds are soaked before being placed in the 
glasses, and have the glasses covered with cardboard to prevent the 
evaporation of the water. Have the pupils note which seeds sprout 
first, how long it takes them to sprout, and what condition the other 
seeds are in. Arrange a jar with seeds in moist earth, and have the 
jar covered so as to allow no air to enter. Have the pupils note 
what happens. Finally, get jars or bottles of different colors, as, 
red, blue, yellow, green, and one which allows no light to enter. 
Place seeds in moist earth in these jars, and let the pupils see what 
takes place. 



356 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Give several lessons on seeds, stems, and roots. Secure enough 
large beans to go round the class. Soak the beans for twenty-four 
hours and give one to each pupil. Direct them as follows : 

"Why is the skin so soft? 
Take off the skin. What do you see ? 
Open the two seed leaves. What do you see? 
Notice the little baby plant. 
Which way does the young stem or bud point ? 
Which way does the tiny rootlet point? 
What does the little plant live on before the root reaches 
the soil? 

Treat corn grains in the same way; Show other seeds, as, peas, 
sunflower, acorn, chestnut, maple, apple, orange, etc. Show how the 
different kinds of seeds are scattered. Secure a number of burs or 
stickers, and pass them among the pupils. Call attention to the 
hooks and barbs. Question the pupils, thus : 

Where will the seeds stick? 

What animals pass near the plants ? 

How does the animal get rid of the stickers? 

Show how the wind scatters seeds. Secure a number of maple 
seeds. Throw them into the air. Throw some near an open window. 
Let pupils blow some away. Ask the pupils to tell about and to bring 
other seeds which are easily blown by the wind. Show some fleshy 
fruit like the apple. Draw sections of the apple on the board to 
show the position of the seeds, thus : 




V4.K.r*Wti\ 



PLANTS 357 



Question the pupils 



Who likes to eat apples? 
What do you do with the core? 
What is inside the core? 
What animals eat apples? 
Name some other fleshy fruits. 
How are the seeds carried? Why? 

Show how seeds are scattered by means of pods. Pass pods 
among the pupils. Take some of the pods and open them suddenly 
with a twisting motion. To illustrate seeds carried by water, show 
a coconut, and call attention to the hard outer shell. After a number 
of lessons on the above topics, call upon the pupils to name as many 
seeds as possible. Write the names on the board. Then have the 
children tell how the seeds are scattered, (1) by wind, (2) by 
animals, (3) by water, (4) by pods. Let them tell why they are 
scattered, and the means employed. After the lessons on seeds, give 
a lesson or two on ferns. Pass ferns among the pupils. Let the 
pupils look for the fruit-dots, spore cases, and spores. Tell the 
pupils how ferns differ from plants which bear seeds. 

In the same manner give lessons on roots and stems. Have 
enough samples of the root or stem, to go around among the pupils. 
See that at least one specimen is passed to a group of from three to 
five pupils. Show the difference between tap roots and fibrous roots. 
Pass among the pupils daisies, or grass, and let them note the kind of 
fibres, the color, the number, etc. Have several tap roots, as, beets 
or carrots, sprouting in water. Compare the root hairs with the 
fibres of the grass or the daisy. Show the growth of tap roots from 
seeds. Question the pupils : 

Of what use is the tap root to the plant the second year ? 

Why are they pulled up the first year ? 

Why does the farmer leave some in the ground for the 

second year? 
What happens to the tap root during the second year? - 

Deal with stems in much the same manner. Secure specimens 
of (1) erect, (2) trailing, as, the nasturtium, (3) creeping, as, the 
strawberry runner, (4) twining, as, the honeysuckle, (5) climbing, 
as, the vine or the creeper, (6) underground stems, as, the potato, 



358 SPECIAL METHODS 

and (7) bulbs, as, the onion. Show how the sap passes through the 
stem. Place a daisy, or a corn stalk in black ink, or red ink, and 
show the pupils through what part of the stem the cap is carried. 
Do the same thing to live twigs of the maple or horse-chestnut. Pass 
stems to the pupils and let them perform the experiment. 

3. Industrial uses of plants. Fifth and sixth years. Ask the 
pupils to examine the different groceries in the neighborhood, and 
bring in the names of the different plants on sale. Write the names 
on the board as they are given by the pupils, but group them, thus : 
(1) parsnips, carrots, beets, etc, (2) potatoes, (3) cabbage, lettuce, 
etc., (4) apples, pears, tomatoes, etc., (5) beans, corn, etc. Question 
the class as follows : 

What part of the beet do we eat? 

How is the beet different from the potato? 

What part of the plant is the cabbage we eat ? 

Have the pupils look up in their geographies where the different 
vegetables are raised. Draw a map on the board and indicate the 
products raised, thus : 




Have the pupils raise some garden vegetables, as, tomatoes, salad, 
beets, etc. Plant seeds, transplant, prune, etc., according to the most 
approved methods. Explain to the pupils how to improve the plant 
by selecting the best plants for seed, by grafting, etc. 

Give lessons on the staple food products, as, wheat, corn, sugar, 
rice, etc. Show the class how to grind wheat or corn, and sift the 



PLANTS 359 

flour. Secure several quarts of wheat, corn, or oats, and distribute 
it among the pupils. Let them take it home and grind it. Explain 
how the grain is raised on a large scale and how the flour is made. 
Let the pupils locate the wheat areas in the world, the corn areas, 
the sugar areas, etc. Show the pupils some sugar cane, squeeze out 
the juice into a glass, and then boil it. Let the pupils take home 
pieces of sugar cane, and boil the juice. Show them how sugar is 
made, and how it is refined. Pass some of the syrup through a cloth 
filter, and through some bone black. After the home food products, 
take up imported foods and drinks, as, coffee, tea, cocoa, etc. Give 
the pupils some green coffee beans, have them roast them, and let 
them note what happens. Let the pupils read how the coffee is 
raised, where it is produced, etc. Pass out some tea, and have the 
pupils soak the leaves in hot water, and straighten them out so as to 
get the original shape of the leaf. Let the pupils read how tea is 
grown, and how it is picked, dried, rolled, etc. Treat cocoa in much 
the same manner. 

Take up plants which are used for clothing and shelter, as, 
cotton, flax, the different kinds of wood, etc. Get a number of cotton 
buds, and a large amount of raw cotton, sufficient to supply each of 
the pupils of the class. Show the pupils how to card the cotton, and 
how to twist the cotton into threads. Let them take the cotton home 
and make threads. Show how the threads are woven into cloth. Give 
each of the pupils a small hand loom, and let them weave threads 
into cloth. Let the class read about cotton and its manufacture, and 
about other fibres, as, flax, hemp and jute. Call upon pupils to bring 
cloth made from the different fibres. Arrange charts which show the 
fibre, the thread, the cloth, and the area which produces the plant. 
In the same way take up rubber and its manufacture. 

Have samples of the different kinds of wood, with cross sections 
of branches of the trees. Explain the difference between soft woods 
and hard woods. Show a section of hard wood, as, oak. Pass pieces 
of oak among the pupils. Ask them to notice the grain. Hold up a 
piece of oak, and rub into the pores some brown or black filler (white 
lead colored with black paint, or putty, colored, will do). Question 
the pupils : 



360 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Where did the filler go ? 

Why are not the stripes and markings colored? 

What other wood can be filled in this manner? 

Treat mahogany and ash the same way. Let the pupils closely 
examine the wood by means of magnifying glasses. Have them name 
the uses to which the wood is put, and write on the board a list of 
articles which are made of wood. After one or more lessons like the 
preceding, take up lumbering. Draw a map of North America on 
the board. Locate the areas which produce the different kinds of 
wood. Show how the trees are cut, how the logs are carried to the 
saw-mill and then cut up into boards. Illustrate the processes by 
pictures and by reading. Tell about life in a logging camp. Explain 
how forests influence rainfall, and how it has become necessary to 
conserve large areas of woodland. 

Show the acreage, yield, and value of the crops in the United 
States by means of the following graphs : 



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PLANTS 



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Have the pupils read the papers for reports of the different crops. 
Keep charts for clippings and illustrations which deal with the 
crops of the United States and of other countries. 

4. Elementary plant biology. Seventh and eighth years. Give 
each of the pupils some squash seeds, beans, peas, or corn. Direct 
them to plant some of -the seeds and keep a record of the stages of 
growth, with drawings and dates. Show the pupils what to note by 
means of the following drawings : 




if 



,£jt 







362 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Take up next the study of the stem. Pass a number of twigs 
among the pupils. Have them scrape oft' the outer brown bark till 
they come to the green bark. Compare this green bark with the 
green stems of annual or biennial plants. Direct the pupils to scrape 
off the green bark till they come to the fibrous bark or bast. Let them 
break through the fibrous bark and note the sap which oozes out. 
Explain the function of this growing layer, or, cambium. Illustrate 
the parts of a woody stem by means of the following drawing : 




Let the pupils look at tree sections through a magnifying glass. 
Question them as follows : 

Where is the old wood? The new wood? 
Point to the growing layer. To the pith. 
Where are the pith or medullary rays? 
About how old is the stem ? 

Let the pupils examine different stems under the magnifying glass, 
as, the corn stem, sunflower stem, bamboo, etc. 

To show how the sap passes through the stem, let some live, 
twigs stand in red ink for a day or two. Pass twigs among the 
pupils, or have them get twigs, and do the experiment themselves. 
Ask them to note through what part of the stem the sap rises. 
Let them try the same thing with corn stalks or lily stems. In 
one or two lessons deal with the growth of leaves from the stems, 



PLANTS 



363 



the arrangement of leaves, and the kinds of leaves. Place a num- 
ber of live, budding stems in water. Show the pupils how the buds 
open, and the marks on the stems where the leaves appear. Let 
the pupils become familiar with the names of some of the more 
common trees, as, the oak, maple, chestnut, horse-chestnut, linden, 
and some of the fruit trees. Show how the sap flows through the 
leaves by placing in red ink the end of a leafy branch of a bean 
or geranium. 

Show the different parts of the flower by means of the fol- 
lowing' diagram: 



s* » rm* 



St^Tnert 




Have enough flowers to supply each pupil with one or more. Ask 
the pupils to pick out the different parts. Direct and question 
as follows: 

Look for the pistil. 
Follow it down to the ovary. 
What is the head called? What is its use? 
Where can you find pollen? Get some on the end of a 
paper. 

Explain how pollination is brought about by bees, and in the 
case of grasses, corn, etc., which have no colored flowers, by the 
wind. Have the pupils shake some of the pollen on the surface of 
the stigma. Let them note how the pollen is held. Present roots 
in much the same manner as that indicated in the case of stems. 
Let the pupils grow some beans, corn, or other seeds. Pass among 
them other fibrous roots, as, grass, daisy, or dandelion. Let them 
scrape off the outer layer or cortex, and examine the central cylin- 
der and its fibres. Show how the roots absorb water by letting 



364 SPECIAL METHODS 

the ends of some roots hang in red ink. Have the pupils note 
through what part of the root the liquid passes. Illustrate the 
parts of the root by the following drawing of a tap root : 




Ask the pupils to bring in other specimens of tap root, as, beets, 
radishes, parsnips, etc. Pass them around the class and let the 
pupils examine sections of the root. Urge the pupils to examine 
other stems, roots, and bulbs on their own account. In the same 
■experimental manner take up ferns and mosses. 

II. Animals 

1. Contact with animal life. First and second years. Secure or 
make (1) an aquarium, and (2) a terrarium. An aquarium can be 
made by cementing panes of glass in a tin or a brass frame, using 
as cement, either (1), 10 parts fine, dry, white sand, 10 parts plas- 
ter of Paris, 10 parts litharge, 1 part powdered resin, stirred and 
mixed to the consistency of stiff putty with pure, boiled linseed 
oil; or (2), 8 parts putty, 1 part red lead, 1 part litharge, mixed 
to the consistency of stiff putty with raw linseed oil. Have the 
plant life and the animal life fairly well balanced. Put into the 
aquarium, first, a two or three inch layer of sand, some water 
plants, a few stones, and then the water. Let the water run in 
slowly by means of a siphon placed close to the sand. Plant some 
eel-grass, duck-weed, and other plants such as are found in ponds. 
Keep some snails in the aquarium, as these feed on the green slime 
which may form. Feed the snails on cabbage or lettuce leaves. 



ANIMALS 365 

Get a number of the regulation gold fish and let them swim around. 
When raising tadpoles, keep them away from the fish by means 
of a wire netting. Feed them with the minute plant life found on 
the stones and plants of a pond. Keep the aquarium in a shady 
place, and have the top loosely covered. With the proper amount 
of plant life, and a few snails, the water will remain fresh in- 
definitely. 

Have a terrarium made from a wooden crate, about three feet 
long, eighteen inches wide and eighteen inches high. Cover the 
long sides with glass, and the top and short sides with green wire 
netting. Place about three inches of rich soil on the bottom of 
the box, plant clover and thistles in one corner, moss in another, 
and cover the rest with grass seed, some small plants, and a few 
sprays of oak artistically placed. Secure different insects, cater- 
pillars, etc., and place them in the terrarium. Peed the butterflies 
with sugar syrup, and try the insects with different fruits and 
vegetables. Release any of the insects which appear weak or in- 
disposed. Let the children gather round the aquarium or the ter- 
rarium from time to time, whenever some new form of life appears, 
when food is given, etc. Give them interesting talks on the life 
before them, and call their attention to the kinds of life, the way 
the animals move, rest, eat, and so on. Do not attempt any formal 
lessons. 

Illustrate by picture and story the more common animal pets 
of children. Make use of nursery rhymes which deal with animals 
in a humane way. Let the pupils read and dramatise such rhymes. 
For example, introduce 'Pussy' by the following: 

I like little pussy, her coat is so warm, 
And if I don 't hurt her, she '11 do me no harm ; 
I'll not pull her tail, nor drive her away, 
But pussy and I together will play. 

Dramatise the following: 

Ten little mice sat down to spin, 
Pussy passed by, and just looked in : 
What are you at, my jolly ten? 
We're making coats for gentlemen. 
Shall I come in and cut your threads? 
No, for, Puss, you'd bite off our heads. 



366 SPECIAL METHODS 

Select ten little children for mice, and one larger pnpil for the cat. 
Direct and question as follows: 

Where are the ten little mice? 

Come now, let me see you making coats. 

"Where is Pussy? "What does pussy do? 

"What do you say, when you come in? 

What do you say, little mice? 

Now let us see how fast you can scamper away. 

In addition, let some of the pupils act out the piece while some 
other pupils are reciting it. The following^ deals with the cat and 
the mouse : 

Pussy-cat, pussy-cat, where have you been? 
I've been to London to look at the Queen. 
Pussy-cat, pussy-cat, what did you there? 
I frightened a little mouse under the chair. 

The following tells about the cat and the robin : 

Little Robin Redbreast sat upon a tree, 
Up went pussy-cat, and down went he; 
Down came pussy-cat, and away Robin ran; 
"Catch," says Robin Redbreast, "Catch, if you can." 

Let the class read, 'The three kittens they lost their mittens/ with 
some of the pupils acting as a chorus for the last lines of each 
stanza, 'Miew, miew, miew, miew. ' 

Call upon pupils to imitate animals, to walk like them, cry 
like them, etc. Direct and question as follows : 

Who wants to be a nice little dog? 

Come up in front of the room. Bark. 

How do you watch in front of the door? 

Come now, make friends with this other little dog. 

Have the pupils imitate dogs, cats, chickens, frogs, etc. Let differ- 
ent pupils take the same part. Arrange short scenes, as. The 
lost dog finding his master, Chasing away a man who tries to enter 
the room. Two frogs playing 'Tag.' Flying back and forth to the 
nest with food for the little ones, etc. Have the pupils act out the 
scene at first, and then speak as they act. Let them choose their 
own expressions wherever possible. 



ANIMALS 367 

2. Nature study. Animals. Third and fourth years. Make use 
of an aquarium and a terrariurn, as indicated in the preceding. 
Show the life history of the frog or toad, and of the moth or 
butterfly. Secure some eggs of the frog or toad and place them in 
the aquarium. Enclose them in a separate space by means of a 
wire netting. When the eggs begin to hatch place in the aquarium 
some of the animal life found on the stones and leaves in the pond. 
Let the children go to the aquarium by groups each day or two' and 
note the growth of the tadpoles. Note the day on which the eggs 
are placed in the aquarium, the day on which the polliwogs appear, 
and mark other changes in growth, as, the appearance of the legs, 
and the gradual disappearance of the tail. When the tail disap- 
pears provide a small, floating island on which the toad or the 
frog may rest. Supply insects and worms. 

To show the life history of the moth or butterfly, collect a 
number of cocoons and place them in the terrariurn. Question the 
pupils as follows : 

How did the cocoon get on the twig"? 

What was it in the summer? 

How did the caterpillars lie during the summer? 

What did they eat? 

Where did they come from? 

By means of colored charts show the development from the egg 
to the caterpillar, from the caterpillar to the cocoon, and from 
the cocoon to the butterfly or moth. Cocoons can readily be gath- 
ered in the Fall. If possible try to raise caterpillars from the eggs 
of the butterfly. Use the terrariurn for this purpose. 

Deal with the life of animals, rather than with the form and 
structure. Take up the homes of animals, how animals protect 
themselves, how they eat, move about, and the like. As types of 
animal homes present the beehive, the beaver's dam and nest, the 
bird's nest, the gopher's nest, etc. Bring into the classroom a 
partly emptied honeycomb, such as is sold in grocery stores. Show 
the wax cells. Draw some of the cells on the board. Break off part 
of the wax and melt it. Tell the class the story of the queen bee, 
the workers, and the drones. Draw the diagram on the board to 
illustrate other uses of the cells in the beehive, thus : 



368 



SPECIAL METHODS 



7XS?>£ 




If possible secure a hornet's nest and show its cell structure 
to the children. Let the pupils read about bees and about the life 
of bees. In other lessons illustrate how other animals build their 
homes. Tell about the beaver and how he builds the dam. Draw 
the following on the board: 




^^^t^mme^^^^M^^^ 



* — -...«..,.• . »: .- 



Question the children thus : 



Why is the beaver's house built above the water? 
How does he get the trees and branches in position? 
What does he use to keep the branches in place? 
Why does he work at night? 
Why cannot a wild animal get at him? 

Tell the pupils how the beaver warns his mates of danger, why 
men hunt him, why animals try to catch him, etc. Let the pupils 
read about the beaver. Illustrate the home of the mole and of the 
pocket-gopher as follows: 



ANIMALS 



369 







■■-,- : 4; 






Sliow how the young are hidden from their enemies. Question 
the pupils: 

"What four-legged animals run about in the house ? 
How do they get from floor to floor? 
How do they get through the floor? 
How does the cat catch themf 

In much the same manner present the homes of birds, the hiber- 
nation of bears, the dens of foxes and wolves, etc. 

Show the pupils how animals attack others, and how they 
defend themselves. Tell the pupils about the cat's claws and teeth. 
Question the pupils, thus : 

How does the cat tear its meat? 

How does it hold a mouse or a rat ? 

Do the claws always stick out? 

"What other animals have claws and teeth like the cat ? 

Illustrate the cat's claws as follows: 



Ct4W 




Ter^orv 



Show how the canine teeth are adapted to tearing raw flesh, 
thus: 



370 



SPECIAL METHODS 




c «*m 



Tell the pupils stories about the fox, the wolf, the lion, etc. 
Let the class read how lions kill their prey, how they carry off men, 
destroy cattle, fight, etc. In the same manner illustrate the talons 
and beak of the eagle, the teeth of the shark, the fangs of the 
snake, etc. Draw diagrams on the board, tell stories, and let the 
pupils read about the animals in question. 

Show the pupils how the weaker animals escape from their 
enemies. Illustrate the chase of a rabbit by a dog or a fox. Draw 
the following on the board, explaining as you draw, thus : 




Why did the rabbit turn in and out from A to C? 

Then he ran to D, turned back to F and ran to G where 

he waited till the dog passed by towards D. 
Why did the rabbit run back to E and jump across to 

the log E? 
Why do rabbits sometimes jump across running streams 

or rivulets? 



ANIMALS 371 

Let the pupils tell of other animals which escape by running 
away. Tell stories about deer, squirrels, animals which live under- 
ground, birds, etc., and have the pupils read stories which tell how 
these animals are pursued by others. 

By means of blackboard sketches, charts, illustrations, reading, 
etc., give some account of the way in which animals feed. If pos- 
sible, show caterpillars crawling along a branch and feeding on 
the leaves. Make sketches on the board showing the same thing. 
Question and discuss as follows : 

What. do the caterpillars eat? 

Why do they eat so much? 

How do they eat when they become butterflies? 

Draw the following on the board: 




Explain and question, pointing as you do so, thus : 

See this long, hollow tongue. 

When the butterfly sticks it into flowers, what does it sip ? 
About how long is the tongue drawn on the board? 
What other insects sip honey? 

Let the pupils read about the feeding of other insects, about the 
storing of honey by bees, etc. 

Take up other animals, as, birds, fish, reptiles, mammals, etc. 
Question pupils as follows: 

Who has seen a robin in the early summer morning? 
What does he search for on the ground? 
How does he get at the worms? 
How will a bird catch flying insects ? 



372 SPECIAL METHODS 

Drew the beaks of several of the smaller birds on the board. 
Point out the scissor-like formation, the pointed ends, the sharp 
sides, and the hollow inside. Question the pupils : 

How will the bird eat berries, or fruit? 
How will it eat seeds? 
How will it eat meat? 
What birds eat flesh? 

Draw the beak of the eagle, and show how the hooked form 
enables the bird to tear meat. Show a picture of the woodpecker. 
Point to the straight, pointed beak. Show other bills, as of the 
stork, pelican, flamingo, and so on. Let the pupils read about these 
birds, how they live and eat. In the same manner present the 
manner of feeding of the shark, snake, cat, dog, mouse, squirrel, 
giraffe, elephant, etc. If possible, show specimens of the head and 
teeth. 

Illustrate the coverings of animals and their means of locomo- 
tion. Secure, or ask the pupils to secure a number of feathers of 
some of the common fowls. Pass the feathers among the pupils. 
Direct the class as follows : 

Try to blow through the feather. 

Hold it loosely, and blow under it. 

Wave the feather as a bird does when flying. 

Why does the bird keep dry when it rains? 

How does the mother keep her chicks warm? 

Show the pupils pictures of different birds, at rest and on ' the 
wing. Let the pupils read about the different birds. Show how 
the webbed foot of some birds acts in the water much like the 
wings in the air. Compare the wings of the bat with the wings of 
the bird. Take up the coverings of other animals in a similar 
manner. Try to get samples of the different kinds of fur, hide, and 
skin. Pass them around the class. Show pictures of the animals 
bearing such fur or hide. Question the pupils, thus : 

At what season of the year is the wool or fur thickest ? 

What animals have you seen with such fur? 

What else helps an animal like the bear to keep warm ? 



ANIMALS 373 

What use does the bear make of his fat when he sleeps 

. through the winter ? 
What other animals are kept warm by means of layers 
of fat? 

Let the pupils read about hunting of whales for their blubber. 
Compare the skin of the whale with the scales of the fish. Show 
pictures of specimens. Question as follows: 

Why does the fish not have blubber? 
Is the fish warm blooded or cold blooded? 
The whale? 

Present similarly the skins and coverings of other animals, as, the 
elephant, the porcupine, the tortoise, the hedgehog, etc. 

Take up with the class the question of how animals move about. 
Question the class as follows: 

How do you get home? 

How would a dog or a horse follow you? 

How would a bird get to its nest ? A fish ? A snake ? 

What animals have two legs? Four legs? 

Let the pupils read about lion or tiger hunting, about the chase 
of rabbits by foxes, the escape of squirrels from cats or dogs, 
the catching of birds or mice by cats, and so on. Show how the 
lion crouches, crawls, leaps, walks, or runs. Illustrate similar ac- 
tions in the case of the cat. Show how the kangaroo hops and 
compare it with the Jack-rabbit. Let the pupils watch the fish 
swim about in the aquarium. Call attention to the action of the 
tail in propelling the fish through the water. Present the above, 
if necessary, in a series of lessons. 

Teach the children to recognise the different types of animals, 
as, those found in the immediate neighborhood, those commonly 
seen in a menagerie or circus, those which recur in song and story, 
and the different native and foreign types. If possible, let the 
pupils read about the type in a supplementary reader which is well 
illustrated. In addition, deal systematically with the different 
types by means of colored charts and mounted specimens. Show 



374 SPECIAL METHODS 

the type and tell about the life of the animal, where he lives, what 
he does, and so no. Keep repeating the name as you tell about the 
animal, thus: 

See the beak of this woodpecker? 

The downy woodpecker bores into trees to get at the 

grubs. 
"What color is the head of the woodpecker? 
How does he hold on to the tree? 
Why do we call this type the sapsucker? 
Why does the sapsucker bore holes into the tree ? 

Call attention to the color of the animal, the size, form, head, 
tail, etc. If it is possible make use of a number of illustrations, 
charts, specimens, etc., which show the animal in different positions 
and in different activities. 

3. Industrial uses of animals. Fifth and sixth years. In pre- 
senting the industrial uses of animals, keep in mind the headings, 
(1) transportation, (2) food, (3) clothing, and (4) shelter. Show 
pictures of different types of horses, as, the draught horse, the 
war horse, the racing horse, etc. Illustrate how the horse is used, 
as, in riding, drawing the plough, wagon, etc. ; carrying packs, etc. 
Question and direct the pupils as follows: 

Look at the hoof of the horse. 
Why does this help him draw heavy loads? 
How is the hoof protected? 
What kind of a hoof has the ox? ' 

Why cannot the ox move as fast as the horse? 
Why cannot the ox draw such heavy loads ? 
Which way do you run more swiftly, flat-footed, or on 
your toes? 

Show how the hoof of the horse gives him a better hold on the 
ground and enables him to move more quickly than other beasts 
of burden. Show pictures of the ox carrying, drawing, etc. Illus- 
trate the foot of the camel and show how it is adapted to traveling 
on the sand of the desert. Let the pupils read stories about these 
animals. 



ANIMALS 



375 



Take up the use of animals as food. Question the pupils thus : 

Name the foods which made up your dinner. 

Where did the meat come from? 

Where did the butcher get it ? 

What other meats can you get in the butcher shop ? 

Show the pupils what is meant by 'beef and 'cattle,' 'pork' 
and the 'pig,' 'mutton' and 'sheep.' Write the names of the dif- 
ferent meats on the board as they are given by the pupils. Let 
the pupils then name the animal from which the meat comes. Draw 
a map on the board, thus : 




Mark off the areas which produce the different animals. Ques- 
tion the pupils: 

What are cows fed on ? Pigs ? 

Why is the pig called a ' walking corn crib ? ' 

When corn is dear and pigs are cheap, which will the 

farmer raise for market? 
When corn is very cheap, how will he get more money 

for it? 



376 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Let the pupils read about the large packing industries, about 
cattle raising, etc. Tell them how meat is frozen by being placed 
in a series of rooms, one colder than the other, till the meat is 
frozen all through. In the same manner present fishing, dairy- 
products, the poultry and egg industries, etc. Draw the following 
graph on the board : 



N6, IjV MILLIONS 


C f\TTL E. 


<o 1 


SWINE. 


ss 


SHEEP 


sx 


HORSES 


zo 


MOLES 


r 



HORStS 
CATTLE 

£ W i r/Z 

SHEEp 



o 



4 



o 
o 



J 



V*Lu£ - M ILL. POLLERS. 

Deal with the clothing of the children in the same way. Intro- 
duce the topic of the use of animals for clothing as follows : 

What are your shoes made of? 

From what animal does the leather come .' 

Is the skin of the cattle leather ? 

What is it called? 

How is the hide tanned? 



ANIMALS 377 

Bring samples yourself and have the children try to get pieces 
of cowhide, patent leather, russet leather, sole leather, etc. Pass 
the samples among the pupils. Let the class read about the manu- 
facture of leather. Present other animal clothing material, as, fur, 
wool, and silk. Secure samples of the different kinds of fur. Pass 
them among the pupils. Question as follows: 

How does fur differ from leather? 

Is there any leather back of the fur? 

Where does the fur come from? 

How do they get the animals? 

Name some of the fur-bearing animals? 

Why is some fur, like seal, becoming so scare? 

Let the pupils collect advertising matter which shows the price of 
fur coats, the names of imitations, etc. Paste such matter on charts. 
Let the pupils read about hunting and trapping. 

Present the use of animal products for shelter (skin tents) in 
a similar manner. Sketch a map on the board and mark off the 
different areas in which hides, furs, etc., are obtained. Question 
as follows : 

Why are the fur-bearing animals found so far north? 
Why are we more certain of having a steady supply of 

hides? 
How are feathers obtained? 

What feathers are raised and cultivated on farms? 
What tortures do trapped and hunted animals suffer? 

4. Elementary animal biology. Seventh and eighth years. Let 
the class study living specimens. Make use of an aquarium and a 
terrarium for this purpose. Present living insects in the terrarium, 
and mounted specimens from a class collection. Have the pupils 
look carefully at the form of the insect, the head, eyes, antennae, 
legs, etc. Direct and question as follows : 

How many parts to the insect ? 
Where is the head? 
What is attached to the head? 
Where is the thorax? 
v What parts are attached to the thorax? 

Where is the abdomen? Which is the longest? 
Which part is the widest? The smallest? 



378 SPECIAL METHODS 

Let the pupils observe how the insect walks. Have them count 
the legs and note how the pairs of legs move. Pass around a 
number of magnifying glasses. Let the pupils examine the head 
of the insect, the eyes, the antennae, the scales on the wings, the 
joints of the legs, etc. Ask a committee of pupils to collect dif- 
ferent kinds of insects for class use. 

In one or more lessons deal systematically with the more 
common insects of the neighborhood. Draw an outline of the parts 
of the insect on the board, thvs: 




In the manner suggested above, let the pupils study the butterfly, 
moth, grasshopper, beetle, roach, fly, bee, mosquito, etc. Take 
up one or two types at a time. Point out the difference in the wings 
of the insects. Illustrate the use of the antennae, the structure of 
the mouth, the formation of the eyes, etc. Make or secure colored 
illustrations of the different insects found in the neighborhood. 
If possible, have specimens fastened to branches or leaves, in imi- 
tation of nature. Secure earth, twigs, etc., and fix the insect in the 
position in which it usually is found when alive. Use tin boxes 
from six inches to a foot square for this purpose. Avoid the grue- 
some arrangement of rows of insects stuck on pins. 

Spend some time on the silk worm, the bee, the mosquito, the 
fly, and the more common insect pests. Present the life history of 
the silk worm. If possible, secure a number of silkworm cocoons 
and pass them among the pupils. By blackboard drawings and 



ANIMALS 



379 



charts show the silk moth, the larvae feeding on mulberry leaves, 
etc. Let the class read about the cultivation of the silkworm, the 
manufacture of silk, etc. In a similar manner take up the study of 
the bee. Show pictures of the drone, the queen bee, and the worker. 
Let the pupils read or tell them about the laying of the eggs in 
the cells of the brood comb, the battle between the rival queens, 
and the duties of the workers. 

Show the life history of the mosquito, the fly, and the pests 
injurious to crops. If possible, raise mosquitoes in an aquarium. 
At least have a chart which illustrates the different stages of mos- 
quito life. Question pupils as follows : 

Why are swamps good breeding grounds for mosquitoes? 

What are some effects of the draining of swamps? 

How else can we protect ourselves against the mosquito? 

Tell the pupils how malaria spores are carried by the mosquito. 
Show the development of the spores as follows: 






ooo 





3-D- I'sveV opme^t 






In the same manner trace the passage of typhoid and other 
bacteria from exposed garbage and refuse to food and drink by 
means of the common house fly. Question as follows : 

What part of the fly carries the germs? 

How can we prevent the bacteria from being carried? 

How else ? Where are flies usually found ? 

Let the pupils read about the efforts made to exterminate the 
mosquito and the house fly, and to do away with malaria, typhoid, 
and yellow fever. Of the pests which injure crops, take up with 



380 SPECIAL METHODS 

the class the study of the codling moth, the clothes moth, the tus- 
sock moth, and the gypsy moth. Prepare charts or secure speci- 
mens, with samples of the products which the larvae have injured. 
Let the pupils read about the damage done and the annual losses 
sustained because of the pests. 

Use aquaria in the study of fish. Lead the pupils to observe 
how the fish use the tail in propelling themselves. Have them note 
the use of the different fins. Let them feed the fish and look at the 
action of the mouth, gills, etc. For closer study, secure enough 
dead fish to be passed, one to every two pupils. Direct and question 
the class as follows: 

Raise the gill covers. 

How many gills are there on each side? 

How are the gills supported? 

Pour water through the mouth. Where does it come out? 

Which are harder, the gills, or the arches? 

Look at the gill filiaments through a magnifying glass. 

In the same fashion let the pupils examine the eyes, mouth, and 
fins. Use the head of a large fish to show the parts of the mouth, 
etc. Draw the following on the board : 



eiJL 




GILLS 



Have the pupils dissect the fish and look for the organs indi- 
cated on the board. In one or more lessons teach the pupils to 
recognise the different kinds of fish. Use colored pictures and 
charts for this purpose. Let the pupils go to the fish stores and 
write the names of the fish which they recognise. In the manner 



ANIMALS 381 

given in the preceding, direct the class in the study of the crab, 
the oyster, and the worm. Let the pupils see how the animal 
moves, eats, senses objects, and help them to recognize the chief 
organs. 

In presenting birds and mammals, make use of skeletons, dead 
specimens, and such parts as can readily be obtained from a butcher 
store. The heads, feet, and wings of chickens should be obtained. 
Let each pupil study the head of a chicken, note the eyes, bill, 
tongue, nostrils, and external ears. Aid the class by means of 
blackboard drawings and of colored charts. Secure a dead fowl 
or a rabbit and show the organs of digestion, of respiration, and of 
circulation. Make use of other specimens obtained for the same 
purpose from the butcher shop. Give a series of lessons on these 
topics if necessary. By means of charts and specimens lead the 
pupils to recognise the more common species. Let the pupils read 
about the animals which are harmful and those which are of use. 
Bring out the uses of song birds as destroyers of insect pests, etc., 
and show the harm done by the sparrow and the crow. In the 
same manner acquaint the pupils with the uses of other animals 
usually considered harmful, as, the frog, the toad, and many snakes. 



CHAPTER XIV 
THE STUDY OF NATURE — VISUAL —(Concluded) 

III. Natural Science 

1. Contact with natural phenomena. First and second years. 
Keep a calendar on the board. Call the attention of the class to 
the weather, and enter each day a picture which indicates whether 
the day is sunny, cloudy, or rainy. For this purpose draw either a 
blue cloud, or a yellow sun, or an open umbrella. Call upon some 
child to tell what kind of weather it is. Have the children read 
and act out rhymes appropriate to the weather. Make use of 
rhymes like the following : 

Doctor Foster went to Gloster, 

In a shower of rain; 
He stepped in a puddle, up to the middle, 

And never went there again. 



Blow, wind, blow, and go, mill, go, 
That the miller may grind his corn ; 
That the baker may take it, 
And into bread make it, 
And bring us a loaf in the morn. 



One misty, moisty morning, 

When cloudy was the weather, 
I met a little old man 

Clothed all in leather ; 
He began to compliment, 

And I began to grin, 
How do you do, and how do you do, 

And how do you do again? 

Let some of the pupils take the part of Doctor Foster. Draw a 
puddle on the floor. As some of the children read the rhyme, have 
the 'Doctor' walk round, and step into the puddle. Deal with the 
other nursery rhymes in the same way. Other good rhymes are 
the following: 

The south wind brings wet weather, 
The north wind wet and cold together; 
The west wind always brings us rain, 
The east wind blows it back again. 

382 



NATURAL SCIENCE 383 

Evening red, and morning gray, 
It is the sign of a bonnie day; 
Evening gray and morning red, 
The lamb and the ewe go wet to bed. 

Get different rhymes from any good book of Mother Goose's 
Nursery Rhymes. 

Have the pupils tell where the sun is first seen, where it is last 
seen, and where it is at twelve o'clock. Direct them to look for 
the stars and the moon. Once each month note at about what time 
the stars are seen. Use the following well-known rhymes : 

Twinkle, twinkle, little star, 
How I wonder what you are ! 
Up above the world so high, 
Like a diamond in the sky ! 

When the blazing sun is gone, 
"When he nothing shines upon, 
Then you show your little light, 
Twinkle, twinkle, all the night. 

Then the traveler in the dark 
Thanks you for your tiny spark; 
How could he see where to go, 
If you did not twinkle so ? 

On a blue background, paste gold stars and show it to the class. 
Let the class read similar rhymes, like 'Early to bed,' etc., etc. 
Connect the seasons with the signs given in nature, as, the appear- 
ance or disappearance of birds, flowers, etc. Note the first snow 
fall, the first frost, the first thunder storm, etc. The following 
rhymes can be used : 

Xmas is coming, the geese are getting fat, 
Please to put a penny in the old man's hat; 
If you haven't got a penny, a ha'penny will do, 
If you haven't got a ha'penny, God bless you. 



The north wind doth blow, 

And we shall have snow, 
And what will the poor Robin do then, poor thing ? 

He'll sit in a barn, 

And keep himself warm, 
And hide his head under his wing, poor thing. 



384 SPECIAL METHODS 

Summer is a-coming in : 

Loud sing Cuckoo ! 

Groweth seed and bloweth mead, 

And springeth the wood new. 

Read such poets as Tennyson, Wordsworth, Burns, etc., for poems 
which deal with birds, flowers, wind and weather, and which are 
simple enough for children. Let the pupils take the part of the 
'poor Robin,' or the 'Cuckoo,' and act out the part as some other 
pupil is reading the rhyme. 1 

2. Nature study. Natural forces and phenomena. Third and 
fourth' years. Let the class study the different kinds of weather 
when the occasions arise. Present the topic, 'Rain,' on a rainy 
day, 'Frost' on a frosty day, and so on. On cloudy days have the 
class note which way the wind is blowing. Let them note what 
kind of a wind causes the rain to fall. Say nothing about causes. 
Simply keep notes during the term which tell about the kinds of 
weather, the winds accompanying such weather, and the dates. 
On snowy days, have the pupils catch snow crystals on their coat 
sleeves, or on cloth, and note the different forms. Show such forms 
by means of blackboard drawings or charts. Take only a few 
minutes to secure notes on the weather of the different days. Make 
use of these notes when the time comes for the lesson in 'Nature.' 
Direct and question as follows: 

Which way did the wind blow before the rain on Octo- 

tober 4? 
What kind of a wind brought the rain on that day? 
Remember the heavy rain last week, when every one was 

soaked. 
How was the wind before the rain? After? 

After the class has seen that the warm wind brings the clouds, 
and the cold wind causes the rain to fall, let the pupils tell over 
what bodies of water the warm wind has passed. Make a drawing 
on the board to indicate this process of rain formation. 



1 The rhymes used above are taken from Mother Goose's Book of Nur- 
sery Rhymes and Songs, edited by E. and G. Rhys, and published in Every- 
man's Library. 



NATURAL SCIENCE 385 

Show how water evaporates. Boil water in a glass beaker. 
Question the pupils as follows: 

Where do the bubbles form first? Why? 
Which way do they go ? Why ? 
What does the water become? 
Where does the steam or vapor go? 

When wash is boiled at home, or in the laundry, where 
does the steam go ? Where does it settle ? 

Let the steam settle, by holding a cold glass plate over the boil- 
ing water. Let the class see that the cold plate acts on the 
steam as a cold wind does on clouds. Lead the pupils to see that 
water is continually evaporating. Dissolve some alum in water, 
place it in a wide-necked bottle, and suspend strands of soft, white 
cord in the mixture. Do the same thing with salt and sugar. Let 
the pupils arrange bottles in this manner. Show that while the 
water becomes less, the crystals increase. Question the pupils, 
thus : 

. Why do the streets dry after a rain? 
Why does your ink become thick ? 
How can we get salt from the sea water? 
How do we dry our clothes? 
Where will wet clothing dry most quickly? 

Let the pupils read about the dry and the wet seasons, about deserts, 
etc. Tell them or let them read about fogs, damp climates, etc., 
]and show by blackboard diagram or chart how warm winds 
sweep over large bodies of water, and afford a supply of vapor and 
rain. 

When the weather is cold enough, freeze some water in a large 
basin. Let a layer of ice form, and pour out the water left. Show 
the ice to the class. Let them see the rough under surface and part 
of the crystal formation. Let the pupils fill bottles with water. 
Place the water on the outside of the window-sill. When the water 
begins to freeze, question the pupils : 

Where does the ice begin to form? 

Why is there usually room for fish in a river which is 

frozen over? 
Why does not the river freeze to the bottom? 



386 SPECIAL METHODS 

Put a thermometer in freezing water and show the tempera- 
ture. Cork some of the bottles which have been filled with water 
and let the water freeze. Question the pupils somewhat as follows : 

Why did the bottles burst? 

When water freezes in the earth, what happens to the soil? 

When the ice melts, how is the soil? 

Is the soil loose or tight? 

Let the pupils see that the hard, frozen earth, which seems like 
stone in the winter, becomes loose and porous when the particles 
melt and flow away as water. Show the pupils that hail is nothing 
more than frozen rain. Draw a diagram on the board to illustrate 
the falling rain meeting a freezing layer of air. 

Deal with the seasons and with day and night simply as 
natural phenomena. Once or twice each week have the pupils note 
the time when the sun sets, and if possible, indicate about when it 
rises. Note the number of hours which make up the day. Show 
that the days become shorter as winter advances. Lead the pupils 
to observe the changes in animal and plant life which accompany 
the changes in the seasons. Question them as follows: 

When do the leaves begin to get green? 
When do the flowers begin to bloom? 
The violet? The Jack-in-the-pulpit ? The daisy? 
When do the birds begin to build their nests? 

In the fall bring in oak or other leaves to show the change in 
the colors. Let the pupils note the days when the leaves begin to 
fall, when the branches begin to get bare, etc. In a series of les- 
sons deal with the seasons in a purely descriptive manner. Take 
up such changes as are seen in the immediate neighborhood of the 
school, as, in the park, in the woods, in any streams nearby, in the 
kind of vegetables sold or raised, in the changes in clothing, in the 
difference in amusements, and other activities. Let the pupils read 
about customs in other lands, as determined by the seasons and 
the general climate. 

In a similar manner deal with natural resources, as, forests, 
coal, etc.. and with the simpler phases of heat, light, and sound. 



NATURAL SCIENCE 387 

« 

Show how forests and waterways usually go together. Arrange 
three layers, one of sand, one of forest earth, and one of dead 
leaves, twigs, etc. Place the layers in square tin boxes, perforated 
at the bottom. Sprinkle the same amount of water on each layer. 
Question the pupils as follows: 

Which layer lets the water run through most quickly? 

Which holds the most water? Why? 

Why are forests useful in the formation of rivers ? 

Let the pupils read about deserts, about forests, etc. Illustrate 
the part which mountains play in keeping deserts dry. Let the 
class read about coal. Show them pieces of hard coal and soft coal. 
Take a thin strip of soft coal and burn it like a ' candle. ' Illustrate 
the working of a mine by pictures, charts and blackboard drawings. 
Have the class read about life in a mine. Deal with other mine 
products in the same manner. Have the pupils collect stones which 
are used in building, and which are common in the neighborhood. 
Question the class: 

What kind of stone is used in the facing of this school? 
Look at this sample. Is it harder or softer than the stone 

used for foundations? 
What kind of stone is used in the pavement in front of 

the school? 

Lead the pupils to recognise the stones used in building. Keep 
a collection of such stones. In much the same way take up min- 
erals and mineral ores. Let the pupils name the metals used in 
common tools and household articles. Show the different ores. 
Illustrate the processes of smelting, refining, etc., and let the 
pupils read about them. 

Present heat, light, and sound simply as phenomena. Show 
how heat expands, bodies. Take a piece of ice. Melt it in a beaker 
under a flame. Question the class as follows : 

Which is harder? 

What did the heat do to the ice? 



388 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Hold up an object at the end of a piece of wire. Slowly heat the 
wire red-hot. Let the class notice how the wire becomes softer and 
how it bends. Question the class : 

Why does a blacksmith heat the horseshoe before he 

hammers it? 
What does the heat do to the iron? 
What other metals must be heated? 
What will happen if the heat is increased? 
What happens to lead when the plumber heats it? 

Put some colored liquid in a bulb similar to the following : 




Let some of the pupils put their hands around the bulb. Show 
how the liquid rises. Use a thermometer in the same manner. 
Have a pupil put his tongue on a thermometer. Use a brass rod to 
show similar effects of heat. Construct instruments like the 
following : 




NATURAL SCIENCE 389 

If necessary, spend several lessons on the topic of expansion. 
Deal with radiation, convection, and conduction in the same de- 
scriptive manner. Slowly boil water in a beaker. As bubbles 
begin to form, drop in crystals of potassium permanganate. Point 
out to the class that the heated particles slowly rise, become cold, 
and then fall. Arrange a toy spiral or wheel over the radiator. 
Clap some chalk dust over the radiator. Draw a diagram on the 
board to show the heat rays. To show the conduction of heat, let 
a pupil hold the ends of several wires, one copper, one iron, one 
brass, and heat the ends. Let him hold a piece of hard wood, and 
heat the end. Have the class name the materials used for handles 
of irons, pots, etc. Spend one or more lessons in reading about 
the sources and effects of heat. 

With light, illustrate its composition, reflection and diffraction. 
Pass light through a triangular glass prism. Show the colors of 
the spectrum on a white piece of paper. If possible, pass prisms 
among the pupils and let them see the colors. Construct a disc 
with the colors of the spectrum. Turn it rapidly before the class. 
Make use of colored glasses. Let light pass through red glass, 
yellow, blue, etc. Then let light pass through two of the glasses. 
Mix two colors by means of a disc. Draw a spectrum on the board, 
or illustrate it by means of a chart. In one or more lessons take- 
up diffraction and reflection. Make use of lenses to magnify, focus, 
etc. Focus the sun's rays on paper, wood, etc., and on the hands of 
some of the pupils. Make a drawing on the board of passage of the 
rays as they are bent to a focus. Have the pupils place a pencil 
or stick in a receptacle filled with water. Question them : 

Look at the stick. Where does it seem bent ? 
Does the bottom of the vessel seem higher or lower than 
it really is ? 



Draw the following diagram on the board 




390 SPECIAL METHODS 

Have the class tell why one must aim below the fish in water to 
hit him. Show the class how to construct the following: 



e, Rod 



fiirt<* 




Have several such finders in the room and pass them among the 
pupils. 

Show how sound is produced. Make a number of sounds in- 
discriminately, by tapping the desk, clapping two pieces of wood 
together, hitting the basin, glass, pitcher, etc. Then sound a tuning 
fork. Hold it in the air. Place it on a box. Tie a few colored 
streamers to the end of the fork and sound it. Question the pupils : 

Is there any sound now? 

Is there now, when I strike it? 

When do you see the streamers move? 

When does the air move? 

How do you hear it? 

Vibrate a long, thin string, and a long, thick one. Compare 
the sounds. Do the same thing with shorter strings. Have the 
pupils tell which produces a high note, which a low note. Moisten 
the finger and rub over the top of a thin tumbler. Slowly fill the 
tumbler. Have the class see the effect on the sound produced after 
each addition to the height of water in the glass. Produce sounds 
by reed instruments. Let the class see the reeds, and illustrate how 
they vibrate. Let the pupils read about thunder and lightning, 
about sounds heard through the air and through the earth, as in 
blasting, etc. 

3. Industrial uses of natural forces. Fifth and sixth years. 
Present the uses of wind and water in the running of mills. Make 
a wheel fitted to turn a small mill, and place it near the open win- 
dow. Let some of the pupils make such wheels. Draw the following 
diagram on the board : 



NATURAL SCIENCE 



391 




Have the pupils tell which way the wheels turn. Question them as 
follows : 

When the large wheel moves around once, how many times 

will the small wheel revolve? 
What is the mill used for? 
Why is a windmill cheaper than a steam engine ? 

Let the class read about the different uses of windmills. Deal 
with the effect of wind on the sails of sailing vessels in the same 
manner. Take up the structure of water-wheels. Indicate their 
general structure by means of the following drawings: 




392 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Show how the power of water in waterfalls is utilised by means 
of turbines. 

Illustrate the lock system in canals. Draw the following on 
the board: 




Question the pupils as follows: 

How will the boat get from one level to the other? 
What will happen to the higher level when the lock is 

open? 
What will happen to the lower level? 

Let the pupils read about the canals in the United States and 
other countries, as, the Erie Canal, Panama Canal, Welland Canal, 
Suez Canal, Kiel Canal, etc. Draw a map on the board to illustrate 
the advantages of the Panama Canal. Take up docking facilities. 
Direct and question the pupils as follows : 

Where are some of the docks near the school? 

What docks are in the business sections? 

Read the papers and see where the big steamships enter. 

How long are some of these ships? 

How long should a good dock be? 

How deep must the water be? 

Let the pupils look up the location of the more important 
docks. Have them read about the business done, the stores and 
supplies kept in the warehouses, etc. 



Take up the use of heat and steam, 
questions of the following nature : 



Ask the pupils a few 



How is this room heated in winter? 

Where is the heat produced? 

Why does coal burn more readily in a furnace ? 

Why do you blow to start a fire in the woods ? 



NATURAL SCIENCE 



393 



Point out the use of the draught. Pass around several burners 
used for the different incandescent lights. Let the pupils see where 
the gas enters, and where the air enters. Illustrate how heat is used 
to generate steam. Boil water in a beaker. Boil it in a test-tube. 
Show how the steam rushes up and causes an overflow. Fasten a 
piston in the test-tube, thus : 



Heat the water till the steam lifts the piston and then remove the 
burner. Question the pupils, thus : 

Suppose the piston were 'stuck' in the tube, what would 

have happened? 
If the steam had been formed suddenly, what might have 

taken place? 
If water is suddenly poured into a hot boiler, what usually 

occurs ? 

Have a steam engine in the classroom, and let one of the 
pupils operate it. Let the class see the action of the piston. At- 
tach the engine to an axle, or to some toy machines. Do not try to 
explain the structure of the engine. Simply let the pupils see how 
the expansion of the steam forces the piston to work. Let the 
pupils read about the early inventors, and the different machines 
in use. 

Acquaint the pupils with the workings of some of the simpler 
contrivances, as the microscope, the phonograph, the electric bat- 
tery, etc. Have one or more simple microscopes in the room. Let 



394 SPECIAL METHODS 

the pupils look at seeds, starch cells, cotton and other kinds of 
threads, cloth, paper, etc. Explain the use of the mirror at the 
bottom. Illustrate how impressions are made in the cylinder of 
the phonograph. Pass several old cylinders or discs among the 
pupils. Draw a cross section of the transmitter on the board. Call 
upon the pupils to tell how the needle acts, and how the membrane 
sends out the sounds. Secure a blank disc and make a record of 
the spelling words. If a pupil will loan a machine, use it in the class 
in this manner. Eecord other lists and outlines. In electricity, let 
the pupils construct simple batteries, connect them with bells, mot- 
ors, etc. Use any material which the pupils may have. Explain 
how the sparker works in motorcars, and illustrate the use of the 
carbureter, etc. Keep in touch with different inventions, and keep 
on a chart clippings, pictures, etc., from popular and scientific jour- 
nals. 

Impress upon the pupils the necessity of conserving the natural 
resources of the country. Question them as follows : 

Where do we get all the wood that is used? The coal? 
Suppose all the forests are gone? "What becomes of the 
land? The streams? The homes? 

Let the pupils read how lumbering is carried on. Point out the 
need of cultivation and systematic planting of forests. Draw a dia- 
gram to show the rotation of crops, fallow land, etc. Have the 
pupils tell how the same process can be carried on with forest trees. 
Ask the class to note the wood now in use in the making of furni- 
ture, and the wood used in some of the older pieces of furniture. 
Let the class read about the wasteful method of hunting used by 
the Indian, and compare with them the wasteful methods of lum- 
bering, fishing, etc., now in use. 

4. Elementary science. Seventh and eighth years. Make use 
of the apparatus, machinery and situations which are met with in 
daily life, and which exemplify the elementary laws of physics. 
Use abstract experimentation only when the means mentioned are 
not at hand. For example, instead of dealing with the simple ma- 
chines as such (lever, fulcrum, etc.), take up such topics as the 
derrick, dredge, claw hammer, etc., sliding down hill, unloading 



NATURAL SCIENCE 



395 



a wagon, and so on. Begin with situations which are concrete and 
interesting, and then proceed to the more abstract work in me- 
chanics and hydraulics. If possible, present the subject matter in 
the following order: electricity and magnetism, use of steam, use 
of water, heating and ventilation, instruments and apparatus which 
exemplify the laws of heat, light and sound, and lastly, the simple 
machines, gravity and the laws of motion. 

Put together in the classroom an electric battery like the 
Leclanche cell or the gravity cell. Show the puipls how to amal- 
gamate the zinc with mercury. Let the pupils construct cells for 
themselves. Show them how to electroplate. Draw the following 
diagram on the board to illustrate copper plating : 




Arrange apparatus for plating objects, securing impressions of 
molds, etc. Let the class see how the current is applied to electric 
bells, lights, etc. Pass one or more bells among the pupils. Point 
out how the current magnetises the iron bars, and then is broken. 
In a series of lessons take up frictional electricity and magnetism. 
Show by experiment in the room the pith ball electroscope, the 
Leyden jar, the magnetised floating needle, attraction and repul- 
sion of a compass needle by the poles of a magnet, induction, etc. 
Wherever possible, have the pupils construct apparatus and per- 
form experiments for themselves. 

Show how the properties of steam are turned to account in 
the steam engine. Boil some water in a beaker. Drop some color- 
ing matter into the beaker as soon as the bubbles begin to rise. 
Question the class thus : 



396 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Why does the steam rise? 
Is the steam pulled up or pushed up ? 
Why does it not push the water up ? 
Which is heavier? 

Place a piston in a test tube which has some water in it. Slowly 
heat the water. Operate a small steam engine. Explain the dii> 
ferent parts to the class. Show how the driving wheel is attached 
to smaller wheels. Illustrate ventilation, heating, evaporation, 
stable equilibrium, etc., in the same manner. Question the class: 

When a street dries, does the sun 'draw up' the vapor? 

Why does the vapor rise? 

Is it pulled up or pushed up ? 

Why does the steam rise through the pipes of this building ? 

What makes it lighter ? 

Float a small boat in a large glass receptacle filled with water. 
Draw the following on the board : 





Point out that the amount of water displaced presses upwards 
and keeps the body at the top. By actual experiment illustrate and 
explain stable and unstable equilibrium, ventilation, the uses of 
the syphon, syringe and pump, and the general structure of sewers, 
aqueducts, wells, etc. Let the class read about winds, storms, etc. 

By means of objects in daily use illustrate the laws of heat, 
light and sound. Arrange the following apparatus : 



NATURAL SCIENCE 



397 




Let one strip be of iron, one of copper, and one of aluminum. 
Stick on each of these strips a row of wax balls. Heat the ends 
of the strips. Question the pupils : 

From which strip do the wax balls drop first? 
"Which metal makes the best cooking utensil? Why? 

Time the experiment. Blacken the ends of the strips with soot and 
repeat the experiment. Take the time. Rivet a bar of copper to 
one of iron, heat, and let the pupils explain which takes heat more 
readily. Perform other experiments to show that heat expands 
objects. Question the pupils: 

When railroad tracks are laid, why is a space left between 
them? 

*Is this space smaller in winter or summer? Why? 
Is wood more porous in winter or summer? 
When will it absorb more paint ? Why ? 
Why is wool so warm ? 
Why will loose, light clothing keep warm? 



Make use of the magic lantern, microscope, etc., to illustrate 
the laws of light, and the phonograph, musical instrument, etc., to 
set forth the laws of sound. Illustrate the lantern by actual use in 
the classroom. Make the following drawing on the board : 



398 



SPECIAL METHODS 




Point out the use of the reflector and the lenses. Show by colored 
chart or drawing how the eye is a series of lenses. Explain what 
is meant by ' near-sight, ' and ' far-sight. ' Use the phonograph, pass 
around some old records, and illustrate how the sound is produced, 
by means of the following diagram: 




Show how the bones of the ear transmit sound in much the same 
manner. In much the same way take up the sources of heat, light 
and sound, transmission, kinds, etc. 

Have a fairly large derrick in the classroom. Let some of the 
pupils lift up different objects, as boxes, furniture, etc., and swing 
them to different positions. Question the pupils as follows : 

What power is used with derricks in building? 

Where is the steam produced ? 

Where is it applied? 

How does it move heavy objects? 

Of what use is the derrick ? 



NATURAL SCIENCE 399 

Let the pupils pick out the different parts of the derrick, - the 
rope, the pulleys, mast, boom, wheel and axle, power, etc. In a 
series of lessons analyse the use of each of these parts. Have one 
or more single pulleys and double pulleys. By experiment show 
what is gained by the use of the movable pulley. Have the pupils 
point out in what other ways the movable pulley is used. Show 
what is gained by the use of the wheel and axle. Have pliers, nut 
crackers, claw hammers, etc., in the room and show how power is 
gained by means of the lever action involved. Let the pupils ana- 
lyse the action of the crowbar, and point out the power, resistance 
and fulcrum. Return to the wheel and axle and show how the 
same principle applies. Have the pupils illustrate lever action by 
means of other tools, machines, etc. Make some drawings like the 
following on the board to show lever action : 

P . P 

ren rp fw| — L T |wL 



Show how much an object weighs in the following positions: 




Question the pupils as follows : 

In what position does it weigh the most? 

Why does it weigh less on the inclined plane? 

In what two directions is the weight divided? 

Why do men use an inclined plane to roll barrels on a 

wagon ? 
Why does water run down hill ? 

In the same way show how the wedge divides the impact into two 
parts, and how the screw is simply a form of wedge fastened to an 
axle. Have large models in the room and let some of the pupils 



400 SPECIAL METHODS 

work them. Have the pupils work out exactly how much power is 
gained, or how it is distributed. Let them name and examine tools 
and machines which are combinations of the simple machines. 

IV. Man 

1. Forms of social behavior. Good habits. First and second 
years. Train the pupils in the use of the expressions, 'Good morn- 
ing,' 'Good afternoon,' 'Yes, sir,' 'Yes, ma'am,' 'Please,' 'Thank 
you,' 'Excuse me.' Before beginning class work, greet the pupils 
with a 'Good morning, children,' and have them answer, 'Good 

morning, Miss . Close the day with 'Good afternoon, 

children.' Have the pupils use the expressions, 'Please may I 
have,' 'Please let me have,' 'Please give me.' Do not give a pupil 
anything till he uses the proper expression. Insist on the use of 
' Thank you. ' Have these expressions neatly printed on large pla- 
cards placed in front of the room. Give several lessons on the use 
of the expressions. Write the expression on the board. Call upon 
the class softly to repeat it. Then call upon a number of pupils to 
say it. Arrange simple dramatic scenes which call the different 
expressions into use, as, Mrs. Smith calls on Mrs. Brown to borrow 
some salt and loan the morning paper. Johnny goes into one or 
more stores and buys some things, A policeman or a nurse calls to 
receive instructions, A messenger delivers a parcel and waits for an 
answer, etc. Call for volunteers. Assign the parts and let the chil- 
dren act and use their own expressions. Refine the expressions, 
write them on the board, let pupils read them, and then call for a 
new set of actors. 

Train the pupils in habits of personal' neatness and cleanliness. 
Spend a set time each day on inspection of the pupil's shoes, hands, 
hair, books and desks. Direct and question somewhat as follows : 

Look at your hands. Fingers, wrists, nails. 
Hold up your hands if they are clean. 
How do we clean our hands? Our nails? 
How docs pussy clean her paws? 
How do the little birds clean themselves ? 

Have the pupils place their hands on the desks. Pass around 
the room and inspect hands. Commend the cleanest hands. Give 



MAN 401 

credits, or gold stars, or ' Neatness slips. ' Examine the shoes. Line 
up the class and spend a moment or so in glancing at the shoes, 
praising, etc. Inspect the hair in the same manner. If possible 
have a box, brush, blacking, etc., in the room for the use of the 
children. Show the pupils how to arrange their desks, material, etc. 
Draw the following on the board : 





Question and direct as follows : 

See where we put the paper. 

How is the inkwell, covered or uncovered? 

Where do we place our books? 

How should the floor be? 

Give set lessons on how to arrange different objects. Let a pupil 
come to the desk of the teacher, and place books, papers, etc., 
properly. Have the pupils pile their things on the seats or desk 
tops, clean out the desks and carefully place books, hats, papers, 
etc., in their right places. Have them take one thing at a time, 
under direction. 

Introduce the children to the right use of the knife, fork and 
spoon. Show them how to eat without making unseemly noises. 
Pass out toy forks and paper plates. Direct and question as fol- 
lows : 

Now we shall take some salad. 
Where must we hold the fork ? 
Hold your forks high up, so. 

Have the class go through the motions of eating. Insist that 
the children keep the mouth closed while chewing. Tell them to 
try to eat without making a noise. See that they keep their fingers 
high up and away from the prongs. Give a lesson on the use of the 
spoon. Pass out spoons and cups of water. Show them how to hold 
the spoon and how to drink from /it. Let them use their spoons. 
Caution them from time to time, thus : 



402 SPECIAL METHODS 

Dip away from you. 

No, a horse makes a noise like that. 

Keep your tongue back when you drink. Etc. 

In the same manner let the class use the knife and fork properly. 
Teach them to use knife only for cutting, and to eat without 
making noises with the lips or mOuth. Show them how to drink 
from a glass or cup, how to hold a glass, etc. Arrange dramatic 
scenes on, Receiving a guest, Holding a reception, Serving, etc. 

2. Personal hygiene. Good habits. Third and fourth years. 
Keep up lessons like those outlined above. In addition, give lessons 
on ventilation, personal cleanliness, proper feeding, use of the 
organs, etc. Light a small candle and cover it with a Mason jar. 
Have the pupils note how the candle slowly goes out. Arrange a 
ladder of two or three candles and repeat the experiment. Let the 
class see how the top candle goes out first. Show what the effect is 
when air is allowed to enter. Question the pupils : 

Why do we open the windows at the top ? 

Why do we open them at the bottom? 

Why should windows be open, even in the coldest weather ? 

Do you sleep in a room with an open window? 

What things make the air impure? 

Call the attention of the pupils to covered garbage cans, and 
uncovered garbage cans, clean streets and dirty streets, clean desks 
and dirty desks, etc. Have a committee inspect desks and closets 
at least once a week. Give breathing exercises. Show the pupils 
how to stand, inhale and exhale. Insist that they keep their heads 
up. Do not allow any pupil to stand or to sit with stooped shoulders 
or bent head. Caution them from time to time, 'Head up,' 'Feet 
flat,' 'Back straight,' etc. 

Make the following drawing of a tooth upon the board: 



Denting. 



Cement 




MAN 



403 



Secure specimens of the teeth of cattle. Saw some crosswise, 
and some lengthwise. Pass the sections among the pupils. Tell 
them the use of the enamel. Show them how teeth decay. Question 
them as follows : 

Suppose you should try to bite a pin or crack a nut with 

your teeth ? 
What takes place after the enamel is cracked? 
Who has had a toothache? 
How do you clean your teeth? 
How do you pick your teeth? 

Let the pupils see that decayed matter in the teeth acts much 
in the same manner as does an open garbage can. Emphasize the 
necessity of keeping the tooth brush away from others. Point out 
the action of the teeth on food and show the different kinds of 
teeth and the use of each kind. Let the pupils read paragraphs in 
some primer of hygiene. 



Let the pupils see the need of having the skin clean, 
them as follows : 



Question 



Why do you wash your hands ? Face? Neck? Body? 
What other reason can you give? 
Look at the skin of your hands. Arms. 
What are the things you see ? 

Make a chart which shows the structure of the skin, or draw the 
following on the board : 




404 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Point out the use of the pores, sweat glands, etc. Question the class : 

How many have had a blister on the fingers? 

Did you feel the pin or needle which you stuck through? 

Why is the skin under the blister so tender ? 

Let the pupils see the need of having dry clothing, and of chang- 
ing any clothing which is wet, as underclothing, stockings, etc. Do 
not let pupils sit in the classroom with heavy sweaters on, or with 
mufflers around the neck. Explain why such practices are harm- 
ful. Encourage the children to take shower baths, to learn swim- 
ming, etc. 

Impress upon the class the necessity of proper feeding. Secure 
some of the more highly colored candies, like lollipops, licorice 
sticks, etc. Take one or more which show decided streaks or lumps 
of color, wet them and mark white paper with the colors. Fasten 
the candy to the paper and exhibit to the class. Mix yellow water 
color, and soak white bread in it. Compare this with the highly 
colored cakes, rolls, buns, etc. Let the pupils collect labels which 
tell whether food is colored or not. Soak some colored foods in 
water and paint with the color obtained. Write on the board the 
names of some of the proper foods to eat, at breakfast, at luncheon, 
at dinner. Let the pupils read about the uses of different foods, 
the effect of alcohol on the stomach, arteries, conduct, etc. Draw 
the following diagrams on the board to illustrate the portion of 
alcohol which is in different drinks : 



rvxry? 



P5 

a. 

s: 

<r 
r, 







Describe how food is digested, absorbed, etc. 
lowing on the board : 



Draw the fol- 



MAN 405 




5tomacW 






Point out the need of chewing thoroughly, the use of gastric 
juice, the necessity of eating different kinds of food, and the like. 
Question the pupils, thus : 

Suppose the food enters the stomach in an unchewed lump ? 

What happens to the gastric juice if we drink too much 

at meals? 
Why must we not eat too little ? Too much ? 
About how much does a child's stomach hold? A man's? 

Trace the passage of a piece of bread to the mouth, the stomach, 
and the intestines. Describe the changes which take place. Bring 
out the waste of saliva in unnecessary chewing. Emphasise the in- 
jury done to the stomach by the use of alcoholic drinks. In a sim- 
ilar manner take up respiration, the evil effects of smoking, the 
proper use of the eyes, effective lighting, etc. Show pictures of 
the lungs, expanded and relaxed. Trace the passage of the air 
through the nostrils to the lungs. Describe how the blood is acted 
upon by the air. Trace the passage of dust or smoke to the lungs. 
Show the effects in the nostrils, air passages and lungs. Take a 
piece of raw meat and smoke it. Let the pupils read passages in a 



406 



SPECIAL METHODS 



primer of hygiene. In the same way present the structure and 
uses of the eye, and emphasise the necessity of cleanliness, proper 
lighting, the use of glasses, etc. 



3. Dietetics. Good habits. Fifth and sixth years. 
the pupils on the different foods eaten, thus : 



Question 



What did you eat yesterday ? In the morning ? At noon ? 

Name some other foods which you like. 

Name some of the foods used almost every day. 

What foods can you buy in this city? 

As the pupils name the foods, write the names on the board as 
follows : 



Tissue builders 


Heat and energy 


Fats 


Mineral salts 


beef, lamb, 


etc. 


bread, cake, 


etc. 


butter 


celery 


meats 




rice 




gravy 


cabbage 


cheese 




potatoes 




bacon 


turnips 


oatmeal 




puddings 




fat 


onions 


beans 




candy 




milk 


apples 


peas 




milk 




eggs 




lentils 




eggs 








macaroni 












bread 












milk 













eggs 

Impress upon the class the necessity of having one of each kind 
of these foods in two or three meals a day, and the importance of 
having something more than coffee and rolls at breakfast. Ques- 
tion them : 

What else can we eat at breakfast? 
Why does a child eat so much? 
Why does a laborer need more food than a clerk ? 
Why should a child eat more at breakfast than an old 
man? 



Let the pupils form lists of substitutes for meat, bread, candy, etc. 
Write such lists on the board. 



MAN 407 

Show the pupils (boys as well as girls), the different methods 
of treating meats. Have small pieces of different kinds of meat. 
Fry, stew, boil, roast and make soup. In frying, heat a metal sur- 
face. Slightly grease the pan and throw the meat on it. Show 
how the sudden heating of the meat coagulates the surface and pre- 
vents the escape of the juices. In stewing, cut the meat into small 
pieces and let them stand in cold water. Add different vegetables,, 
as, celery, greens, potatoes, tomatoes, carrots, etc., and let the mix- 
ture simmer. "When meat is cooked put a large piece into boiling 
water for a few minutes. Then turn down the flame and. let the 
meat slowly cook. In roasting or broiling, use great heat for the 
smaller pieces of meat, and a lower temperature for a large piece 
of meat. Question the pupils thus : 

"Who knows what a tape worm is? 

What happens to the eggs of the worm in a fire? 

What happens if the eggs are boiled? Fried? Eoasted? 

Why do we heat meats before eating them? 

Show the class how heating makes the meat more tender 'and loosens 
the fibre. Compare with our own methods of cooking the methods 
of other races. In presenting the foregoing, do the actual cooking, 
etc., in the classroom. Let the pupils do the same at home and bring 
self-cooked meats at lunch, at a reception, etc. 

Treat vegetables and fruits in the same manner. Get some 
carrots, potatoes, celery, etc. Take a carrot and cut part of it into 
small pieces. Boil the pieces. Pour out the water. Question the 
pupils : 

Did the water have anything in it? 

Did it take anything out of the carrot ? 

How can we keep everything that is in the carrot? 

Cut up the rest of the carrot into large pieces, or put the whole 
piece into the pot. Boil it and mash the water in with the boiled 
carrot. Spice and add a sauce if necessary. Boil a potato in the 
skin. Let the pupils see how the skin contains almost all the juice 
that is in the potato. With other vegetables keep the water and 
mix it with the vegetable, or with the sauce. Show the pupils how 



408 



SPECIAL METHODS 



to preserve fruits. Get some apples or some cranberries. Peel and 
core the fruit. Cut apples into pieces, put into a pot, and add some 
water. Slowly boil. When soft, add sugar and shut off the heat. 
Cranberries or other berries should be washed, boiled and sweetened 
with sugar when soft. Do not boil long after the sugar is added. 

Show the pupils the composition of different foods. Prepare 
some starch by scraping a potato to a pulp, and squeezing out the 
juice by means of a cloth bag. Allow the fluid to settle for a day. 
Make a paste and test with tincture of iodin (iodin dissolved in 
alcohol). Test other foods in this manner and show the presence 
of starch. Use corn, bananas, bread, milk etc. Show the presence 
of protein by means of the nitric acid test. Add some nitric acid to 
milk, and heat in a test tube. Add nitric acid to some meat. Ar- 
range a series of test tubes containing respectively, starch solution, 
fat, grape sugar, salt solution, milk, white of egg and raw beef 
juice. Add nitric acid to each and boil. Let the class announce 
whether or not there is any protein present. Let the class read 
about proteins, foods, etc. 



Take up the presentation of some of the more important 
protein foods. Question the class as follows : 

Which is more nourishing, sirloin steak or soup meat .' 

Why do you say that? 

Is soup nourishing? Has it much food value ? Why? 

Show the food values of the different meats by means of the follow- 
ing table : 



Meat 



Sirloin 
Chuck 
Cross ribs 
Flank 



Protein 



18.9 
19.2 
15.9 

20.8 



Fat 


Carbohy. 


18.5 





15.4 





28.2 




11.3 






Point out that the cheaper cuts of meat are just as nutritious 
as those which cost more money, that good soup meat is as nu- 
tritious as the best steak. Take up the food values of milk, eggs 
and cheese. Construct the following table: 



MAN 



409 



Food 


Protein 


Fat 


Milk 


3.3 


4.0 


Eggs 


13.4 


10.5 


Store cheese 


28.8 


35.9 


Cream cheese 


25.9 


33.7 


Swiss cheese 


27.6 


34.9 



Carbohy. 

5.0 
0.53 

2.4 
1.3 



In a similar manner show the food values of other proteins, as 
beans, peas, lentils, oatmeal, fish, fowl, etc. 

Present vegetables in the same way. Illustrate the composition 
of the foods as follows : 




C att o t 



Construct the following tables 



Food 


Protein 


Carbo. 


Fat 


Potato 


1.30 


20.00 


0.15 


Cabbage 


1.89 


4.87 


0.20 


Carrot 


1.23 


9.17 


0.30 


Turnip 


1.54 


8.32 


0.21 


Spinach 


3.49 


4.44 


0.58 



Salts 


Water 


1.00 


76.00 


1.23 


89.97 


1.02 


86.79 


0.91 


87.80 


2.09 


88.47. 



Question the pupils: 



Why can't we make a full meal on potatoes or cabbage? 

What other foods are usually added? Why? 

How will milk increase the food value of potatoes and 

milk? 
What is the effect of adding corned beef to cabbage? 



410 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Take up the question of the economics of food. Construct the 
following table on the board: 



Food 


Protein 


Carbo. 


Fat 


Salts 


Water 


Beef 


20.96 


0.46 


5.41 


1.14 


72 . 03 


Steak 


20.40 


0.40 


1.97 


1.90 


74.70 


Salmon 


21.60 




12.72 


1.39 


64.29 


Cod 


16.23 




0.33 


1.36 


72.25 


Egg 


12.55 


0.53 


12.11 


1.12 


73 . 67 


Milk 


3 . 66 


4.48 


3.62 


0.68 


87.22 


Beans 


22 . 26 


57.50 


1.50 


2.50 


13.00 


Macaroni 


10.98 


76.05 


0.45 


0.64 


11.60 


Oatmeal 


14.70 


69. SO 


6.20 


1.50 


7.80 



Question the pupils as follows : 

What foods can be substituted for meat ? 

Why can meat, beans, macaroni and eggs be considered a 

heavy meal? 
Which of these foods ought to be omitted if meat is in the 

meal ? 
What other vegetables should be eaten with meat? 
Which foods are cheaper than meat .' 
Is steak any better as a food than soup meat ? Why ? 
Why are beans so good a food? 

Show the pupils what the expression 'artificially colored' 
means. Secure samples of bread, home-made cake and cakes highly 
colored. Mix some yellow water color and soak a piece of bread in 
it. Compare the colored bread with the colored cake. Contrast the 
dull color of the home-made cake with the bright color of the other 
cakes. Take a piece of highly colored candy, as, a lolipop. Dip it in 
water and paint or mark a white paper with it. Show the small 
flecks of solid color sometimes found in the candy. In the same 
manner compare 'artificially colored' peas, cherries, etc.. with peas, 
cherries, etc., which have been cooked and not colored. 

By means of charts or blackboard drawings illustrate the 
amount of alcohol in different drinks, as shown above. 



MAN 411 

Let the pupils read about the effects of alcohol on the system. 
Keep a chart on which are pasted newspaper accounts of accidents, 
crimes, etc., due to excessive use of alcohol. Let pupils tell about 
the actions of intoxicated men, tramps, etc., whom they have seen. 
Write topics on the board thus : 

Health — Long life — Work — Friends — Growth — Intelligence 

Have pupils compare a man who uses alcohol excessivel}' with 
one who does not, according to these heads. Treat tobacco in a 
similar fashion. 

4. Elementary human biology. Seventh and eighth years. Let 
the pupils go through breathing exercises. Question them thus : 

What did we do just now? Why? 

Why were the windows open at the top ? At the bottom ? 

What did we breathe in ? Out ? 

Burn a candle and cover it with a large glass jar. Have pupils 
explain why it went out. Have the lungs of a pig or sheep in the 
room. Show them to the class. Point out the trachea or windpipe, 
and its division into the bronchial tubes. Cut or scrape away por- 
tions of the lung, and show the further subdivisions of the bronchial 
tubes. Cut off a piece of lung and let it float in a jar of water. 
Question the pupils : 

Why does it float ? 

How does the air get to the cells? 

Suppose we hold the lungs over a smoky fire ? 

How do they dry ham ? Beef ? 

What is the effect of hot smoke on the lungs ? 

WTiy is smoking bad for the lungs ? 

Show charts or drawings which illustrate how the air passes through 
the nostrils and into the lungs. Let the pupil read about respiration, 
ventilation, etc. 



412 SPECIAL METHODS 

Show how the oxygen reaches the blood, thus 







| U «E/» 



Question the pupils as follows: 

What causes the blood to flow into the lungs? 
Where is the heart situated? 

Make the following drawing on the board to illustrate the heart 
action : 



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«-tftfC, *> 



Have a pig's or a calf's heart in the room. Cut it across to 
show the walls of the ventricles. Have pupils tell why the left 
ventricle is thicker than the right ventricle. 

Illustrate by blackboard drawings, charts, etc., how food is 
changed into blood. Question the pupils somewhat as follows : 

Where does the blood come from? 
How is it made? 

Draw the following on the board : 



MAN 



413 



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Explain the action of gastric juice on the protein foods. Trace the 
digestion of the fats and the final digestion of starch and protein 
in the small intestines. Show how absorption takes place through 
the small intestines into the blood vessels. Let the pupils trace the 
history of a mouthful of bread, of a piece of meat, etc. Explain 
the action of saliva on the starchy foods. Question the pupils, thus : 

Why should we chew our food well? 
How will rapid eating cause dyspepsia ? 
Why are lumps of food imperfectly digested? 

Let the pupils read the effects of alcohol on the linings of the 
stomach. Emphasise the necessity of resting after eating, the 
effects of overeating, etc. 

Take up with the pupils the care and structure of the teeth, 
the skin and the sense organs. Question the pupils, thus : 

Why does a garbage pail smell so? 

What happens to food which remains in the mouth? 

What causes bad breath ? 

How may an unclean mouth poison some of the food? 



414 



SPECIAL METHODS 



Emphasize the necessity of keeping the teeth clean. Explain the 
structure of the teeth by means of the diagram drawn above. 
Have samples of the teeth of cattle and pass them among the 
pupils. Explain the uses of the different kinds of teeth. Present 
the care, structure and use of the skin in a similar manner. 

Show to the class the care, use, and structure of the eyes. Test 
the pupils by means of an eye-testing chart. Use any good chart. 
Let a pupil take the record of the others, e. g., || in which the 
20 indicates distance in feet at which the letters should be seen 
by the normal eye, and the 18, etc., the distance in feet at which 
the letters are actually seen. Test both right (R) and left (L) eyes. 
Use a small card to cover one eye while the other eye is being tested. 
Pass some magnifying glasses among the pupils. Have them focus 
the printed page. Let them move the page out of focus. Illustrate 
the result by means of the following diagrams : 



~y 






^'f 



-'*l 



o -ij> 






o. 



^ 









Emphasise the need of securing glasses if necessary. Show how 
light should fall upon the matter to be observed or looked at, and 
not in the eye. Draw the following to illustrate : 



MAN 



415 




Emphasize the importance of using a table lamp which will throw 
the light on the printed page, on sewing, etc. In much the same way 
illustrate the use and structure of the ear. 

Take up the body as a whole, muscles, skeleton, etc. Let the 
class go through exercises of standing, stretching, facing, bending, 
breathing, etc. Question the pupils as follows : 

While standing, why do, Ave not crumple up ? 
What keeps us straight ? 
Why is it that we can bend ? 

Have the pupils grasp some object, as a book, or pencil. Let 
each pupil feel his forearm while he tightens or loosens his grasp. 
Have him note the action of the tendons in the wrist. Illustrate the 
muscle action bv means of the f ollowins' drawing : 




NOV 28 WW 



416 SPECIAL METHODS 

Secure some chicken or turkey legs, and show how the tendons, 
when pulled, move the claws. Dissect part of a leg of lamb, mutton, 
or pork, and show the layers of muscle. Show how these layers 
differ from the heart muscle. Emphasise the importance of exer- 
cise, rest, and proper diet. In the same manner present the differ- 
ent bones of the body, the lever action, the kind of joints, etc. 

V. General Suggestions 

Secure enough material for the lesson, if possible, an object or 
specimen for each pupil. Let the pupils bring in material. Do not 
try to make up a lesson out of 'mere talk.' Get pictures and dia- 
grams from magazines, business houses, etc. Arrange the illustra- 
tions in sets which can be passed among the pupils. Mount the 
larger pictures on charts. Keep a cabinet for the more permanent 
specimens. In general, deal with situations which surround the 
pupil in the home, the shop, and the immediate neighborhood. Ex- 
plain and analyse such situations and from them draw the special 
form of life or machine which is to be presented. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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